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Elements of f^aiF-^ing. 



JOHN W. DECKER. 



PROFESSOR OF" DAIRYING, OHIO STATE 
UNIVERSITY. 



ILLUSTRATED. 



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Columbus, Ohio t 

Published by the Author. 

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ALt, RIGHTS RESERVED, 



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C0I»YR10HTKD BY 

JOHN W. DECKER, 
1903. 



PRESS OP 

THE BERLIN PRINTING COMPANY, 

COLUMBUS, OHIO. 



PREFACE. 



The American Dairy School had its rise in 1891. 
The instructors had no precedents to fall back upon. A 
system of laboratory and classroom work had to be 
evolved. In other words dairying had to be put into 
pedagogic form. Classroom work was necessarily in 
the form of lectures, and the lectures have been taking 
the form of text-books. These books have been writ- 
ten for a tv\^ofold purpose ; first, for those in the class- 
room, and second, for the public. This volume has fol- 
lowed this course. For several years the author has 
used many notes in lectures before his classes and in 
public addresses. He believes that such a book used as a 
nucleus around which he can build will enable the stu- 
dents to get a firmer and wider grasp of the subject than 
by lectures alone, and at the same time he believes that 
the dairy public is looking for such a treatment of the 
subject. 

During the past fifteen years a great many facts 
about milk and its products have been learned. These 
facts have been set in order and constitute the science of 
dairying. 

Other books have been written to cover the field 
of cheese making, milk testing and dairy bacteriology. 
No attempt has been made to duplicate those books in 
this volume, but those things that form the foundation 
of dairying have been considered. The book has there- 
fore been named "The Elements of Dairying." 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Preface 3 

Chapter, I. — Introductory 9 

1. Dairy Products Staple Articles. 

2. Dairying in Great Britain. 

3. Rise of the Factory System. 

4. Extent of Business in United States. 

5. Some Historical Facts. 

6. Dairy Business Changing. 

7. Effect of Frauds. 

Chapter II. — The Secretion of Milk 14 

8. Mammals. 

9. Udder Foreshadowed in Lower Animals. 

10. High Development of Udder. 

11. Structure of Cow's Udder. 

12. Milk Veins. 

13. Quality of Udder. 

14. Form of Udder. 

15. Theory of Milk Secretion. 

16. Milk a Secretion. 

17. Selection of a Cow. 

Chapter III. — Water and Solids of Milk 27 

18. Composition of Milk. 

19. Average Milk. 

20. Efifect of Length of Lactation Period. 

21. Effect of Breed. 

22. Legal Standards. 

Chapter IV. — Milk Fat 32 

23. Chemical Composition. 

24. Saponification. 

25. Difference Between Butter Fat and Oleo. 

26. Tests for Oleo. 

27. Color of Milk. 

28. Fat Globules. 

29. Numbers in a Drop. 

30. How Counted. 

4 



Table of Contents. 5 

31. Relative Size of Globules. page. 

32. Per Cent, of Fat in Milk. 

33. Effect of Breed. 

34. Strippings Compared With Fore Milk. 

35. ElTect of Excitement of Cow. 

36. Effect on Fat of Showing at Fairs. 

37. Highest Testing Normal Milk. 

Chapter V. — Milk Solids Not Fat 43 

38. Ash. 

39. Proteine Compounds. 

40. Caseine. 

41. Caseine and Albumen, How Separated 

42. Milk Sugar. 

43. Sugar, How Obtained. 

Chapter VI. — The Physical Properties of Milk 47 

44. Physical Condition of Milk. 

45. Specific Gravity. 

46. Lactometer. 

47. Creaming of Milk. 

48. Viscosity. 

49. Law Governing Creaming. 

50. Definition of Cream. 

51. Effect of Temperature Upon Creaming. 

52. Shallow Setting. 

53. Dilution Creaming. 

54. Creaming Under Air Pressure. 

55. The Centrifugal Separator. 

56. Factors Affecting Centrifugal Separation. 

57. Durability of Separators. 

58. Theory of Churning. 

59. Varieties of Churns. 

60. Effect of Temperature Upon Churning. 

61. Advantages of Rich Cream. 

62. Churning Cream From Strippers* Milk. 

63. Reason Cream Thickens Before Breaking 

64. Viscosity Affected by Condition of Fat. 

65. Viscogen. 

66. How to Use Viscogen. 

67. Whipping Crean. 

68. Beaten Cream. 



Taule of Contents. 

69. Skim Milk. page. 

70. Butter Milk. 

71. Artificial Butter Milk. 

Chapter VII. — Butter and Cheese 63 

72. History of Butter and Cheese. 

73. Butter. 

74. Over-run. 

75. Renovated Butter. 

76. Cheese. 

77. Food Value of Cheese. 

78. Yield and Quality of Cheese as Affected by Milk. 

Chapter VIII. — Contamin.\tion of Milk 70 

79. Flavor of Milk, How Afifected. 

80. Bacteria. 

81. Germicidal Properties of Milk 

82. Growth of Bacteria. 

83. Acidity of Milk. 

84. Putrefactive Bacteria. 

85. Pathogenic Bacteria. 

86. How to Combat Bacteria. 

87. Keep Bacteria Out. 

88. Milkers. 

89. Sterilization. 

90. Pasteurization. 

91. Two Types of Pasteurizers. 

Chapter IX. — Teisting Cows 81 

92. The Cow's Milk. 

93. Some Jersey Records. 

94. Columbian Exposition Test. 

95. Holstein-Friesian Tests. 

96. Impossible Over-run. 

97. Guernsey Tests. 

98. Value of Testing Cows. 

99. How to Proceed. 

100. Tests of Single Milkings Unreliable. 

101. Professor Farrin^ton's Experiments on Averages 

102. Milk Flow and Richness Combined. 

103. Value of Pedigree. 

104. Unusual Test of Duchess of Ormsby. 

105. DifTerence Between Mean and Average. 



Table of Contents. 7 

PAGE. 

Chapter X.— Market Milk 90 

106. Food Value of Milk and Cream. 

107. Ancient Methods of Milk Delivery. 

108. Cans vs. Bottles. 

109. Milk Tickets. 

110. Market Terms. 

111. Aerated Milk. 

112. Certified Milk. 

113. Standardized Milk. 

114. Standardizing from Cream and Skim Milk. 

115. Standardizing from Two Qualities of Milk. 

116. Value of Milk and Cream on Fat Basis. 

117. Modified Milk. 

118. Objectionable Feature of Cow's Milk for Babies. 
110. Methods of Modification. 

120. Efifect of Water in Cow's Milk. 

121. Walker-Gordon Laboratories. 

122. Rubber Nipples. 

123. Filling Prescriptions. 

124. Effect of Food on Baby's Health. 

125. Market Cream. 

126. Condensed Milk. 

127. Condensed Milk for Babies. 

Chapter XI. — Dairy Refrigeration 104 

128. Field of Dairy Refrigeration. 

129. British Thermal Unit. 

130. Latent Heat. 

131. Ineffectiveness of Running Water. 

132. Artificial Refrigeration. 

133. Insulation Important. 

134. Freezing Mixtures. 

135. Ice Cream. 

136. Ice Cream Fillers. 

137. Frozen Junket. 

138. Mixing Cream. 

139. Expansion. 

140. Freezing in Open Kettles. 

Experiment Station Bulletins and Reports 110 

Dairy Literature 115 



CHAPTER L 
INTRODUCTORY. 

1. Dairy Products Staple Articles. 

Milk, butter and cheese have been staple products in 
the whole history of the human race, but the past cen- 
tury, and especially the last fifty years, has seen a re- 
markable development in the dairy business. 

2. Dairying in Great Britain. 

The British Islands produced considerable butter 
and cheese, but the demand for these products soon ex- 
ceeded the home supply and nearby European countries 
as well as America, Australia and New Zealand began 
to send in supplies. Danish butter is now standard in 
that market, and Normandy supplies French rolls. By 
the invention of artificial refrigeration, products from 
far-ofif countries are delivered in fresh condition. 

3. Rise of tlie Factory System. 

The factory system sprang up in America and a 
large trade grew up, and with the opening up of trade 
in China and other Asiatic countries American dairy 
products are finding a new demand. But their occu- 
pancy of that field is to be strongly contested. Russia 
is also progressing in the dairy business, and Siberian 
butter and cheese which meet American butter and cheese 
in the English market, will meet it again in Asia under 
much more favorable conditions for Russia. 

9 



10 Ele:\i£xts of Dairying. 

4. Kxteiit of Bui!iiiieN»( iu United States. 

There are in the United States 1T,1U5,22T milch 
cows valued at $516/711,914, and an army of about 
1,700,000 men are required to care for them, while 
enough more are engaged in manufacturing and hand- 
ling dairy products to run the number up over 2,000,000, 

There are over 8000 creameries, beside several thou- 
sand cheese factories, Wisconsin alone having about 
1600. 

These cows if put in single file, allowing ten feet of 
space for each animal, would make a line 32,-115 miles 
long, or would form a procession ten abreast from New 
York to San Francisco. 

They give annually 7,266,392,674 gallons of milk, 
of which 3,751,107,944 gallons is made into butter, with 
a skim milk residue of 30,969,147,186 pounds, worth 
$60,000,000. 

5. Some Historical Facts. 

In 1810, ten years after settling the Western Re- 
serve in Northeastern Ohio, cheese was carted to Pitts- 
burg for barter. In 1820, Harvey Baldwin, 19 years 
of age, started with five tons of cheese, made near Aurora, 
by boat for New Orleans, but sold it out at Wheeling, 
Cincinnati and Louisville. 

About 1835, Charles R. Harmon took six tons of 
cheese to Fort Dearborn (now Chicago), but went back 
to Milkwaukee, then of 75 inhabitants, and sold it. About 
1852, Mr. Harmon bought cheese five days from the 
hoop and cured it. 

The factory system started in Oneida County, N. 
Y. In 1851, Jesse Williams and his sons, residing on 
different farms, brought their milk together to be made 
into cheese. 



Introductory. 11 

In Ohio the first factory was built by Mr. Budlong 
at Chardon, Geauga County, in 18(50. The second one 
was built in 1861 by Mr. Bartlett at Munson, Geauga 
County, and the third by John I. Eldridge in 18G2 in 
Aurora Township, Portage County. In 18G3, Hurd 
Bros, built one at Aurora Station, and after that the 
factory system developed rapidly. 

In Wisconsin the factory system started with a 
factory built in 1864 by Chester Hazen at Ladoga, Fond 
du Lac County, and one near Watertown, built by 
Stephen Faville. 

The creamery business started later on the gathered 
cream plan. Wagons driven over long distances gath- 
ered up the cream which was churned at the creamery. 

In 18T9 a DeLaval separator was exhibited at the 
London Dairy Show\ The committee on awards re- 
ported it as "a very interesting invention, but thought 
that it would never become practical in large dairies." 
It has since revolutionized the butter business and made 
large creameries possible. The Babcock milk test, in- 
vented in 1890, has also brought about many changes 
as it pointed out unnecessary losses. 

The largest creamery in the world is the Continen- 
tal at Topeka, Kansas. It has 300 skimming stations in 
Kansas, Colorado and Oklahoma, beside several hun- 
dred individual shippers of cream, and in 1902 made 
8,000,000 pounds of butter. 

On February 15, 1872, seven men, W. D. Hoards 
Stephen Faville, W. S. Green, Chester Hazen, H. F. 
Dousman, A. D. Faville, and H. C. Drake, organized 
the W^isconsin Dairymen's Association. There were 
then no through lines of railway to New York, there 
"being four different gauges of track ; cheese had. to be 



12 Elements of Dairying. 

transferred from one car to another and large bills for 
cooperage were sent in^ and the cooperage bill became 
the regular thing. The freight rate from Wisconsin to 
New York was two cents a pound. Through the efforts 
of W. D. Hoard, agent of the Wisconsin Dairymen's 
Association, a rate of one-half cent in refrigerator cars 
was secured. 

This marked the beginning of a rapid development 
of the factory system in the west, and indeed upon the 
factory system of the whole country. 

6. Dairy Business Cliaiigiiig. 

But the dairy business is changing. Many large 
cities are calling for milk and cream as well as for butter 
and cheese. Long milk trains run half across the state 
to supply New York City. Chicago draws its supply 
from a hundred and fifty miles around, and Cleveland 
and Pittsburg compete for their supplies, Pittsburg some- 
times going within thirty-five miles of Cleveland for 
milk. 

Many cheese and butter factories in these terri- 
tories cannot compete with the higher prices for milk for 
consumption, and the character of the business is 
therefore changing. Trolley lines are also playing a part 
in the change. The dairy business in the meantime is 
growing. 

7. Effect of Frauds. 

This chapter will not be complete without reference 
to the battle with frauds. Skim cheese is made with the 
expectation of selling it for full cream ; filled cheese 
made bv substituting foreign fat for butter fat almost 
ruined the business in Wisconsin, and lost the best of the 
British trade for the Ignited States and it has never been 
regained. Colored oleo was assumed to be as good as 



Introductory. 13 

butter, and was sold for it in such enormous quantities 
that its output equalled in 1901 the capacity of 1600 
creameries. But the producers of dairy products, 
together with the injured consumers, have asked for fair 
legislation and have secured the filled-cheese law and 
the oleo law of 1902. 

The United States Navy that carries the flag to dis- 
tant parts of the world also carries the finest creamery 
butter put up in three-pound tins. What better thing 
do American sailors deserve? 



CHAPTER IL 
The Secretio]S[ oe Milk. 

8. Maiunials. 

A large class of animals known as nianniials secrete 
a liquid for the nourishment of their young until, the 
young are able to find food on their own account. The 
milk is secreted in glands of more or less prominence 
in the different species, and this gland is termed the mam- 
mary gland or udder. It is probably a modification of 
the sweat glands of the skin. 

9. Udder Foreshadowed in Louver Animals. 

The udder is foreshadowed in lower types of ani- 
mals, and a gradual development can be traced until the 
highest development of the gland is found in the domes- 
ticated dairy breeds of cows^ the extreme development 
being brought about by the encouragement of nature 
by man. 

In the Ornythorycus, "the glands consist of about 
200 club-like tubes opening at two points close together 
on the surface of the skin. The secretion exudes and 
the young lick it off from the hair." 

"In the Marsupials, the glands are more com- 
pacted and small follicles are formed, into which a num- 
ber of these ducts enter. Each follicle, of which there 
are ten to twenty in number, empties through a separate 
duct upon an eminence upon the surface." 

This eminence is a rudimentary teat. In the sow, 
the mare, the ewe, the cow the development is increas- 
ingly pronounced. 

14 



The Secretion of Milk. 15 

10. Hig^li Develoimient of Tdcler. 

A. W. Bitting, in an article in the Twelfth Annual 
Report of the Indiana Experiment Station^ from which 
we quote freely, says that he has dissected a cowl's udder 
weighing" forty-one pounds six ounces. A Holstein 
Friesian cow in Wisconsin is reported to have measured 
nearly six feet around the udder, or within two inches of 
her heart girth. Cows have been reported to have 
secreted over a hundred pounds of milk in a day, — their 
own weight in less than two wrecks, and over ten tons in 
a year. 

11. Striictiire of Co^v's Udiler. 

The udder of the cow is one large gland with four 
distinct quarters. It is suspended from the abdominal 
w^alls in a hbrous capsule, and is held together by fibrous 
tissue. A longitudinal fibrous partition divides the udder 
along the median line very distinctly into two halves. 
Dr. Bitting has shown by injecting colored liquids 
through the teats, that the halves are again very dis- 
tinctly divided into quarters, and that only that milk 
produced in any quarter can be drawn from the corre- 
sponding teat. 

A longitudinal section of a quarter and teat shows 
that the opening of the teat is guarded with a sphincter 
muscle. A cavity through the length of the teat is lined 
by folds of the tissue when empty, and just above the 
teat is another cavity known as the milk cistern. This 
is not large, holding but a few^ ounces, and ducts open 
from this into the tissue of the gland. Following these 
ducts they will be found to divide into smaller branches 
which eventually end in little groups of cavities, the 
alveoli or ultimate follicles. These alveoli are in groups 
which m'5}- be likened to a small bunch of grapes. They 




Longitudinal section of a quarter of an udder. 
Cornell Experiment Station. 



The Secretion of Milk. 1? 

are lined by epithelial cells which derive their nourish- 
ment from little blood vessels surrounding them. They 
vary in size from one two hundred and fiftieth to one 
one hundredth of an inch in length and from one thirteen 
hundredth to one eight hundredth of a inch in diameter. 
The blood leaves the heart through the posterior 
artery which divides in the region of the hips, where it 
again divides into two arteries, the common illiacs, and 
again into two more arteries from which, after it has 
divided into many small capillary arteries, the cell tissue 
in the alveoli is fed. 

12. Mills Veins. 

The cells use such portion of the blood as they need, 
and capillary veins begin to gather the venous blood 
into ever enlarging veins, until it is collected in a system 
of large veins just under the skin and surrounding the 
upper part of the udder much like a rope tied around it. 
From this surrounding vein or rather group of veins, for 
according to Bitting, there are 14 to 17 of them, large 
v^eins run from the fore part and posterior part of the 
udder back to the heart. These are the so-called milk 
veins. They do not contain milk, but are an indication 
of the milk-making capacity of the udder, as they indicate 
the quantity of blood used in the gland. If there hap- 
pens to be pressure on the anterior veins the blood may 
return to the heart by way of the posterior veins, and it 
is possible to have a large milker with small visible milk 
veins, but this is not likely, and it probably never occurs 
that an animal having large milk veins is a poor milker. 
The veins run forward, are often very tortuous and may 
branch several times and enter the chest wall through 
•openings, which are termed milk w-ells, and are some- 
times large enough to insert the end of the finger. 




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13. Quality of Udder. 

Many udders consist largely of fibrous tissue and 
are termed "fleshy." Such an udder does not contract 
upon milking as will an udder composed more largely 
of glandular tissue. Some udders can be so milked out 
that they very largely disappear. 

An udder of a young animal may be deceiving as 
it is held firmly to the abdominal walls. In heifer calves 
on the sides, just above and in front of the flanks, may 
be found cords which later help to support the udder, 
and the size and strength of these cords is said to be an 
indication of the udder capacity of the animal in the 
future. In old cows which have been heavy milkers, 
the udder, on account of the heavy weight of milk it has 
carried, may be drawn partially away from the abdominal 
walls and be termed, a pendant udder. 

14. Form of Udder. 

There is a natural tendency in cows for the rear 
quarters of the udder to develop much more than the 




Outline of square, well developed, udder. 




Pen drawing of a dissected udder and milk veins 
as seen from above. Drawn from original photo- 
graph, by Dr. A. W. Bitting. Shown in Twelfth 
Report of the Indiana Experiment Station. 



The Secretion of Milk. 



21 



fore quarters. The wise dairyman tries to develop the 
fore quarters, encouraging them to develop well forward, 
making what is termed a square udder. The teats should 




Outline of udder lacking in fore-quarter development. 

not be too prominent, for if the udder is cut up between 
the teats it is at the expense of glandular tissue. A 




Outline of a funnel-shaped udder 



funnel-shaped udder is one in which the teats are very 
prominent and the quarters of the udder small, so that 




Outline showing cut-up udder. The ideal udder would 
be filled out along the dotted line. 




Udder and milk veins of Johanna De Kol 2d, Holstein Friesian cow, 
owned by Gillett & Son, Rosendale, Wis. She gave 17,000 pounds of 
milk containing 644 pounds of butter fat in her four year old form. 



The Secretion- of Milk. 



O'A. 



the udder is shaped Hke a funnel. The teats should be 
set well apart and be large enough to grasp well with 
the hand. 

15. Tlieory of Milk Secretion. 

The theory of the secretion of milk held by most 
authorities is that the cells in the alveoli are gradually 
built up between milkings. At the time of milking the 
agitation causes these cells to break down into milk. 




Udder cut-up between the halves. 

The reason put forward for this theory is that when an 
udder is cut open very little milk is found. If one has 
observed a nursing calf, lamb or kitten, considerable 
agitation of the udder was apparent. 

It has been shown by Professor Well that it is very 
necessary to agitate the udder in order to get all of the 
milk, that some milkers milk their cows apparently dry, 
but immediate subsequent agitation of the udder v/ill 



24c 



Elements of Dairying. 



bring down considerable milk. He estimates that if the 
million cows in Wisconsin average as the cows with 
which he has experimented, with butter fat at 20 cents 
per pound, the value of the milk thus secured would be 
worth six millions of dollars. On the same basis with 
the 800,000 milch cows in Ohio, the annual income 
could be increased by $4,500,000. The method of 
manipulation employed by Professor Woll was first 
suggested by a Swede by the name of Helgelund. 




Abnormal-shaped udder. 
16. Milk a Secretion. 

The milk is a distinct substance manufactured in the 
cells of the udder. It is not strained from the blood. 
Milk fat, as will be shown later, is different from beef 
fat. and milk sugar is found nowhere else in nature — it 
is a sugar peculiar to milk. The proteids of milk are 
also different from the proteids of the bod;-. 



The Secretion of Milk. 25 

As soon as broken up into milk, the secretion finds 
its way down the milk ducts into the milk cistern and 
teat. 

Professor John H. Shepperd, while at the University 
of Wisconsin, conducted some experiments in the order 
of milking the teats, and in competing with a calf for the 
quantity of milk obtained. The calf was weighed before 
and after milking, and manipulated one side of the udder 
while the regular milker managed the other side. The 
next milking they would change sides, etc., to get com- 
plete checks. It is interesting to note that the calf was 
not superior to the man in the contest. 

Some milkers are, however, superior to others. By 
looking over the milking records at the University of 
Wisconsin, it was possible to pick out the cows milked 
by a certain milker, for he could (or rather did) invariably 
get more and richer milk from the same cows than when 
the cows were milked by other men. 

It was a noticeable fact that this herd of cows always 
gave less milk on Sunday than other days of the week, 
probably because the milkers were in more of a hurry that 
day and did not do their work as thoroughly. 

17. Selection of a Cotv. 

It has been observed that the milk is made from the 
blood. In selecting a cow it should be remembered that 
blood is made from food and the cow should have a 
large chemical laboratory in her make-up for the diges- 
tion of food. There should be a good heart girth also, 
for the heart has to pump immense quantities of blood 
and the lungs are called upon to purify this blood. The 
nervous system also has a part to play for a large nerve 
branches ofT from the last dorsal vertebra and goes into 
the udder to control operations there. A prominent 



26 Elements of Dairying. 

backbone and long tail indicate a good nervous develop- 
ment. The animal should not be tied together with 
thick beefy flanks, but should have plenty of room for 
the location of an udder and should have a distinct ten- 
dency not to put the food on her frame in the form of 
flesh, but to turn it into milk. 



CHAPTER IIL 



Water ajst> Solids of Mit.k. 

18. Composition of Milk. 

Milk contains all the food elements necessary for 
ihe development of the young animal. Not only do 
these food elements vary in their percentages in the milk 
of any one species, but the variations are still greater 
among different species. The relative amount of devel- 
opment of the animal at birth produces different require- 
ments as to food. 

At first thought it may seem easy to give a statement 
concerning the composition of average cowl's milk, and 
this we will attempt to do, but as we study the subject it 
will be found that many factors come into play so that it 
is very difficult to determine just what is average milk. 

The following diagram will express to the eye in a 
general way the composition of what we may be pleased 
to call average milk. 

Water 57% For the water 0/ the bodtf 

(Ash .7% Foy Bone 



MilK 



6oi;ci5i*)7o 



Solids noi 

Fat 7./%' 



/Albumen74 [Hair 



fod ZPI% 



,5ugar J2 



jHoo|5 

IHorn 

For Heat 
and Fat 



But milk grows richer in solids as the period of 
lactation advances. Certain breeds of cattle give richer 

27 



28 Elements of Dairying. 

milk than others, and whole herds of cattle may give 
milk quite different in composition from other whole 
herds of the same breed. 

With these facts in mind we will study some of the 
variations. 

19. Average Milk. 

It has been thought that the reports of tests and 
analyses of milk from a great many cheese and butter 
factories would give a fair average. Dr. Babcock 
secured reports from dairy students in Wisconsin dis- 
tributed over a large . territory upon which he based 
some conclusions, and Dr. VanSlyke, in New York, 
made careful and extensive analyses of milk in cheese 
factories and arrived at about the same conclusions as 
Dr. Babcock. There are, however^ localities where the 
stock has been crossed largely with Jersey blood where 
the results are too low, and again reports come from 
certain sections of Europe that are lower than the results 
of Drs. Babcock and VanSlyke. 

Dr. VanSlyke gives the following averages of 
cheese factory milk from the results of three years' w'ork. 

It is customary for the cows to come fresh in the 
spring and the milk to be carried to the cheese factory 
for six or seven months. It will be seen that the relation 
between water and solids varies from month to month. 

Table showing relation between water and solids 
in New^ York cheese factory milk : 

Per Cent. Per Cent. 

Month. Water. Solids. 

May ^7.U 12.5fi 

Tune 87.31 12.69 

July 87.52 12.48 

August 87.37 12.63 

September 87.00 13.00 

October 86.55 13.45 



Water and Solids of Milk. 29 

. Dr. VanSlyke calls attention to the fact that in July 
the lower solids are due to a drouth. 

so. Effect of Leiig^th of Lactation Period. 

The preceding table is, it will be seen, cheese factory 
milk. Dr. VanSlyke has taken a herd of fifty cows calv- 
ing in different months of the year and arranged aver- 
ages of the months in lactation with results quite different 
from the cheese factory milk as follows : 

Averages according to months in lactation of fifty 
cows : 



Month in 


Per Cent. 


Per Gent. 


Lactation. 


Water. 


Solids. 


1 


86.00 


14.00 


2 


86.50 


13.50 


3 


86.53 


13.47 


4 


86.36 


13.64 


5 


86.25 


13.75 


6 


86.00 


14.00 


7 


85.82 


14.18 


8 


85.67 


14.83 


9 


85.54 


14.46 


10 


85.17 


14.83 



A person observing this second table, if he did not 
have the cheese factory averages before him, might con- 
clude that the average given in our diagram is entirely 
out of the way, 

21. Effect of Breed. 

At the Geneva Experiment Station a breed test was 
conducted for several years. There were three to seven 
cows in each herd and the test ran from six to seven years. 
Other animals in the different breeds would probably 
have given somewhat different results from those ob- 
tained, but comparing these results with many other 
analyses we conclude that the figures are typical of the 
breeds. 



30 Elements of Dairying. 

They are as follows : 

EFFECTS OF BREED ON COMPOSITION OF MILK. 

Breed. Per Cent. Water. Per Cent. Solids. 

Holstein 88.20 11.80 

Ayrshire 87.25 12.75 

Shorthorn 85.70 14.30 

Devon 85.50 14.50 

Guernsey 85.10 14.90 

Jersey 84.60 15.40 

The lowest testing and highest testing animals in 
the six breeds would make the difference still more 
marked. 

22. L.eg'al Standards. 

It was formerly very difBcult to convict a man of 
adulterating milk for the reason that if he was really 
seen to water the milk it was still more difficult for the 
witness to follow it until delivered and be able to swear 
that the milk delivered was really the milk seen to be 
watered. Most states now have laws establishing legal 
standards for milk which state that a chemist's analysis 
shall stand for evidence in court. 

Some of these laws establish a standard for total 
solids. The Ohio law, for instance, requires twelve per 
cent, of total solids excepting in May and June, when it 
may be as low as eleven and a half per cent. This latter 
clause probably grew out of the fact that cheese factory 
milk tested low in these months. If the table showing 
efifect of period of lactation be examined again, it will be 
seen that the milk grows poorer until about the third 
month and from that time on grows richer again, follow- 
ing the abundance of milk flow, the solids being least at 
the time of greatest flow. The plan on w^hich the cheese 
factories operated was to have the cows come fresh in 
March and April and the flush of milk w^ould come in 
Mav and June. But factories are now operated the year 



Water and Solids of Milk. 31 

round and milk in factories is coming to be paid for by 
test, while the large amount of milk sold for consump- 
tion is sold the year round. THe eleven and a half per 
cent, clause is evidently unjust. 

It has been decided many times in court that milk 
testing below a legal standard, though given that way by 
the cow. can be considered adulterated. In the eyes of 
the law, it does not matter whether the excessive water 
was put into the milk by a man or not. 



CHAPTER IV. 
Milk Fat. 

28. Clieinica,! Composition. 

Milk fat is a mixture of a number of compounds and 
is made up of carbon 75%, hydrogen 13%, and oxygen 
12%. The substances in the mixture are palmatin, olein, 
myristin, butyrin, laurin, caproin, stearin, dioxystearin. 
capryHn, and caprin. 

Palmatin melts at 144° F. and myristin at 129°, 
while olein and butryin are liquid at ordinary tempera- 
tures. Together they form a mixture in the form of milk 
fat that melts at 87° to 90° F. The proportions vary 
somewhat so that the melting point of the milk fat varies, 
as for instance, the fat in the milk of stripper cows has a 
higher melting point than normal. Oil meal and gluten 
meal fed to cows will lower the melting point, while 
cotton seed meal will raise it. 

Butter fat is the glycerides of the fatty acids corre- 
sponding to the above named fats. That is, glycerine 
12.5% unites with 87.5% of the fatty acids to make the 
fats named. 

24. Saponification. 

If the fat is boiled with an alkali the latter takes the 
place of the glycerine and makes a soap. If now the 
soap be boiled with an acid, the acid added will unite with 
the alkali of the soap and set the fatty acids free. These 
fatty acids appear to the eye to be fat. The Short milk 
test, which was invented at the Wisconsin Experiment 

32 



Milk Fat. 33 

Station b> Chemist F. G. Short, now associate editor of 
Hoard's Dairyman, depended upon these reactions. A 
sample, 20 c.c. of milk, was measured into the test bottle ; 
then 10 c.c. of a potash solution was added and the mix- 
ture boiled for two or three hours, when the milk fat was 
turned to soap. Then 10 c.c. of a mixture of acetic and 
sulphuric acids was added and boiled for two hours 
longer. The fatty acids as they were liberated from the 
soap would collect in the neck of the bottle. 

Later when Dr. Babcock invented his method of 
testing milk, he used the Short test bottle and made his 
pipette 17.6 c.c. to correspond to the scale on the Short 
test bottle which included a volume of two cubic centi- 
meters. 

25. Difference Bet^veeii Butter Fat and Oleo. 

The fatty acids of butter fat are a mixure, the same 
as the fat is a mixture of a number of fats. Some of 
these fatty acids are volatile, and here is a distinguish- 
ing difference between butter fat and oleo. The Reichert- 
Wollny test is based upon this fact. 

Five grams of the fat in question is weighed into a 
flask. A potash solution is added and the mixture 
boiled until the fat is turned to soap. Then sulphuric 
acid is added and the Hask attached to a still. It is then 
gently distilled so that 110 c.c. of distillate goes over in 
thirty minutes. The volatile fatty acids are driven over 
in the distillate, and when this is titrated w^ith a standard 
alkali solution, the amount of volatile acid driven over 
can be determined. If the fat in question was butter fat 
it would require tw^enty to thirty-five c.c. of the deci- 
normal plkali used to neutralize the acid in the distillate, 
but if o^eo, one or two c.c. would be sufficient. If it 



34 Elements of Dairying. 

was a mixture of oleo and butter fat, an amount between 
that of oleo and butter fat would be required. 

The amount of volatile fatty acids in butter fat vary 
somewhat. Fall pastures and stripper cows have the 
effect of decreasing them in the milk. 

26. Tests for Oleo. 

It is a rather difficult task to distinguish between 
oleo and butter fat on the market. Oleo will not get 
rancid like butter fat because of the lack of these lighter 
fats. If oleo be melted in a spoon over a gas jet it will 
simply melt down quietly, while butter will froth. 

27. Color of Mills:. 

The color of milk is called lactochrome^ meaning 
simply milk color. We do not know just what it is. It 
is more evident in the milk of fresh cows on succulent 
feed or good pasture. It is also more noticeable in the 
milk of G\iernsey and Jersey cows. 

It is in the butter fat as is quite evident by watching" 
a centrifugal cream separator, when it will be seen that 
the cream has a yellowish color, while the skim milk is 
quite white. In making butter and cheese, artificial col- 
oring matter is added to make up the deficiency of color 
at certain times of the year. The color thus added is- 
either annato — made from the coating of annato seed or 
an analine color. The cheese color is made by boiling the 
seed in lye and colors the casein, but butter color has the 
color dissolved in oil and will therefore be incorporated 
with the butter fat, but will not mix with the butter 
milk. 

28. Fat Globules. 

Fat will not dissolve in the water of the milk, but is 
in emulsion. It is broken up into minute globules that 



Milk Fat. 35 

vary in size from 1-1500 to 1-40,000 of an inch in diame- 
ter ; that is, it would take 40,000 of the smallest globules 
placed side by side to make a row an inch long. 

20. Numbers in. a. Drop. 

There are 150,000,000 of them in a single drop of 
milk and it would require 30,000,000,000 to weigh a 
single grain. It was estimated that the cows in the 
herd at Cornell University manufactured on the average 
38,210,000 of them per second. 

30. How Counted. 

The reader may wonder how it is possible to count 
such a large number in so small an amount of milk ; for 
counting two per second, and working steadily 12 hours 
per day, it would take 180 days ; or how they can be 
picked out of the drop of milk and laid aside one by one 
so that they will not be counted a second time? It is 
done as follows in a very few minutes : A small glass 
tube, such as can be procured at the drug store, is heated 
in a gas lamp and two men run in opposie directions 
with the ends. This draws the tube out into a fine hair- 
like tube. The milk in question is then diluted fifty 
times with water, so that there will be only one globule 
where formerly there were fifty. The diluted milk is 
drawn into these little tubes and the ends plugged with 
vaseline. The tubes are put under a microscope and 
there in the tubes are seen the little fat globules, ten or 
a dozen or twenty. By means of a micrometer in the 
microscope the length and diameter of the tubes can be 
measured and then computed into volume, and then the 
volume is multiplied to that of a drop, and we thus know 
how many globules there are in a drop. 



56 Elements of Dairying. 

^t. Relative Size of Globules. 

We have given the size of globules with a sugges- 
tion that they are not all of the same size. They are 
larger in the milk of some breeds of cows, and are much 
more numerous and smaller in the milk of strippers than 
in that of fresh cows. 

Succulent food also decreases the size as well as 
increases the number. 

The globules are larger in the strippings than in the 
fore milk. While some breeds of cows as the Jerseys 
and Guernseys give rich milk and have, comparatively 
speaking, large globules, richness of milk does not 
necessarily control the size of the globules, for the factors 
mentioned above, as period of lactation for instance, 
may change this. 

The large globules have 67 times greater bulk than 
the smaller ones, and are 250 to 300 times greater in 
weight. This fact has an important bearing on the 
creaming of milk as will be explained later. 

Perhaps the average diameter of milk fat globules 
is 1-10,000 of an inch. The following sizes of fat glob- 
ules according to breeds are given by the Geneva, N. Y._, 
Experiment Station : 

Holstein •*• 

12090 

Ayrshire ^ 

12450 

Devon •'• 

10370 

Guernsey — 

9350 

Jersey — 

9630 



Milk Fat. 37 

33. Per Cent, of Fat in Milk. 

The per cent, of fat in milk means the number of 
pounds of fat in one hundred pounds of milk. The fat 
is the most variable constituent of the milk and it would 
be difficult to make an exact statement of what the aver- 
age fat test is in cow's milk. Dr. Babcock finds that it 
is 3.7% when Wisconsin cheese factory and creamery 
milk is concerned, and Dr. VanSlyke finds that New 
York conditions give about the same results. 

The percentage usually increases with the length of 
the period of lactation, with possibly a slight drop the 
second or third month when the flow of milk is greatest. 
The fifty animals at the Geneva Experiment Station 
which were averaged according to months of lactation 
for solids were also averaged for butter fat as follows : 



Month of 


Average 


Lactation. 


Per Cent. Fat 


1 


4.54 


2 


4.38 


3 


4.28 


4 


4.39 


5 


4.38 


6 


4.53 


7 


4.56 


8 


4.66 


9 


4.79 


10 


5.00 



33. Effect of Breed. 

Breed also affects the fat content of the milk. Hol- 
steins are noted for the large quantity as well as thin 
milk that they give, while Jerseys give less but richer 
milk. 



38 Elements of Dairying. 

In the Geneva breed test previously mentioned the 
average, low, and high tests for each breed are given : 

GENEVA STATION BREED TEST. 

AVERAGE PER CENT. OF FATS. 

Breed. Average. Low. High. 

Holstein .3.36 2.88 3.86 

Ayrshire 3.60 3.20 4.24 

Devon 4.60 4.30 5.23 

Guernsey 5. .30 4.51 6.13 

Jersey 5.60 4.06 6.09 

34. Strippiiigrs Compared Witli Fore Milk. 

It has been stated that the elaboration of milk 
occurs in the epithelial cells of the alveoli. The fat 
globules are formed there and the cell walls breaking 
down, they are discharged into the cavity of the alveoli, 
and find their way down the milk ducts into the teat. But 
as they are solid bodies and rub along the w^alls of the 
milk ducts, they do not travel as fast as the milk serum 
(some authorities think they are not elaborated as rap- 
idly) and the result is that the last of the milk or the 
strippings, as it is called, is much richer in fat than the 
iore milk. 

Successive samples taken during a milking have 
l3een shown to test .9%, 2.6%, 5.35% and 9.% fat. The 
thoroughness then with which the udder is emptied, 
affects the fat content of the milk given. While it is 
not always true, it is usually the case that short periods 
iDetween milkings produce richer milk than long periods. 

Attention has already been called (15) to the fact 
that some milkers can get more and richer milk than 
others from the same cows. This may be due to method 
of milking and agitating the udder, and it is possible that 
the cows like certain milkers better and give their milk 
■down better. 



Milk Fat. 39 

35. Effect of Excitement of Cow. 

Professor Woll has called attention to the fact that 
sickness with fever or excitement will cause smaller fat 
globules, and perhaps the amount secreted may be 
affected. 

We give a few instances that have come to our ob- 
servation : 

It was the privilege of the author to operate the 
Babcock milk test the first time that it was exhibited 
outside of Madison. This was at the Portage and Bara- 
boo Fairs, September, 1890. The Hon. John M. True 
was president of the Baraboo Fair and lived on a farm 
adjoining the fair grounds. He had a grade Jersey cow 
called Daisy which he brought onto the grounds to be 
tested. She was milked at six in the evening after the 
day's excitement on the grounds, and again in the morn- 
ing at home, under normal conditions, at six o'clock, 
with the following results : 

DAISY TRUE AT BARABOO FAIR. 

Time Pounds Per Cent. Pounds 

Milked. Milk. Fat. Fat. 

Six p. m 21.75 6.5 1.41 

Six a. m 19.38 5.4 1.05 

Totals 41.13 2.46 

It will be observed that after the day's excitement 
she gave more and richer milk than in the morning after 
quieter conditions. The record for the day was an ex- 
ceptionally good one and if kept up for a week would 
make 17.22 pounds of fat, which would probably produce 
twenty pounds of butter. It was therefore decided to 
make a week's test. The results as compared with tlie 
day at the fair were : Miik. Per cent. Pounds' 

Pounds per day. Fat. Fat per day. 

Poorest day 38.5 3.99 1.81 

Best day 44.5 5.16 2.19 




The Hon. John M. True's cow, Daisy, shown at the Baraboo, Wis. 
Fair, 1890. 



Milk Fat. 41 

The total fat for the week was 13.81 pounds and the 
best test and best day's fat did not come up to the test of 
the day at the fair. But she did well enough to have her 
photograph taken, and it was desirable to have the 
picture taken with the udder full, so instead of milking 
at six in the morning as usual, the picture was taken at 
nine when the light was sufficient, and the animal much 
to her dislike, was separated from the other cows. 
Then came the milking and she gave 28.25 pounds of 
milk testing 6.33% fat, the highest record made by her. 
Elaborating a little over a pound and a half of milk per 
hour during the previous week, it was wholly unexpected 
for her to give eight pounds extra for three hours extra 
time, and the butter fat was still more of a surprise. 

36. EfiEect on Pat of SUowins" at Fairs. 

We also give another instance of excitement, work- 
ing in this case to the detriment of the results. Two 
Holstein-Friesian cows belonging to Gillett & Son of 
Rosendale, Wisconsin, were tested first at home, again 
the next week at the Fond du Lac County Fair, third at 
the State Fair at Milwaukee, and following that went to 
the Indiana State Fair, and the fifth w^eek tests were 
reported from the Illinois State Fair : 

The results were as follows : 

ftijanetta. 
Where Pounds Per Cent. Pounds 

Tested. Milk. Fat. Fat. 

At home 60-38 2.52 1.52 

^ 59.94 2.83 1.70 

At Fon du Lac ^^-25 2 73 1.56 
°" "^^^ ^^"^-53.80 3.10 1.67 

At Milwaukee.. I J2 31^ }]? 33.00 3.37 Lll 

At Illinois State 

Fair 39.00 1.84 .72 26.00 1.10 .12 



Duchess of Springvale Fourth, 


Pounds Per Cent. 


Pounds 


Milk. Fat. 


Fat. 


34.63 2.75 


M 


33.01 2.90 


.96 


33.00 3.16 


1.04 


33.60 3.33 


1.13 


32.50 3.04 


.99 



42 Elements of Dairying. 

The trip to Indiana was very hard on the cows and 
they were said to have arrived at the IlHnois Fair much 
exhausted. An interesting question arises ; did the 
milkers get all of the milk elaborated? If not^ the short- 
age of milk and butter fat is easily explained by saying 
that the strippings were left in the udders. The milkers, 
however, seemed to think that the cows did not elaborate 
any more than was drawn from the udder. 

37. Hig-liest Testing Normal Milk. 

After thirteen years experience with the Babcock 
test, in which time we have tested thousanas of samples 
of milk, the richest sample in butter fat, of which we 
were sure that it was a fair sample of the whole milking, 
tested 10.7% fat. 

The cow did not give this amount regularly, but 
dropped at the next milking. In but a few cases have 
we found milk testing nine per cent., and it is a rare 
thing for a cow to average seven per cent. 

The subject of testing cows will be discussed in a 
later chapter of this book. 



CHAPTER V* 
Milk Solids jsot Wajt, 

38. Ash. 

The ash of the milk is the mineral matter that is left 
after burning off the organic matter. It contains all of 
the mineral matter necessary to build up the bony frame 
work of the growing young animal. 

The milk is a very complex substance and it is very 
difficult to determine just how all of the mineral elements 
are combined. The following chemical elements go to 
make up the ash : Calcium, sodium, potassium, magne- 
sium, iron, phosphorous and chlorine. Calcium and 
potassium phosphates are present, and the former is 
supposed to be combined with the casein. Some of the 
ash is soluble and part is in little particles held in suspen- 
sion, for it can be filtered out in a porcelain filter or 
thrown out in a separator bowl, which would not be 
true if it were ah in solution. The ash st:ems to be quite 
uniformally present in cow's milk to the extent of about 
.7%. If we had as much data about the ash as about the 
butter fat we might not be able to speak as positively 
about it. 

Rennet, the ferment from the calf's stomach, which 
is used in making cheese, will not coagulate the milk if 
the soluble calcium (lime) salts are absent. 

39. Proteine Componntls. 

The proteine compounds are those which contain 
nitrogen, and a little sulphur and phosphorous. It is 

43 



44 Elements of Dairying. 

found in the form of two substances ; caseine, the cheese 
part, and albumen. 

40. Caseiiie. 

The caseine consists of carbon 53%, oxygen 22.7%, 
hydrogen 7%, nitrogen 15.7%, phosphorus .85%, and 
sulphur .75%. It is not in solution but is in a colloidal 
state much like starch held in hot water. This is proved 
by filtering it out of the milk by means of a porcelain fil- 
ter, and by throwing it out by whorling the milk for a 
long time in separator bowl. Dr. Babcock discovered 
this latter method and separated the caseine that he 
studied, in a Danish Weston separator bowl. The sub- 
stance deposited on the walls of the bowl 'was a milky 
slime. When dried on glass it became transparent with 
a flourescent appearance. 

The results of one of Dr. Babcock's experiments 
was as follows : 

Per Cent. 
Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Gent. Ash in Dry 

Skim milk diluted with Solids. Nitrogen. Ash. Substance. 

equal water 4.25 0.24 .396 9.82 

Liquid after 3 hours =1.53 proteine 

whorling 3.25 0.12 .283 

Total substance removed 

in3hours 1.00 0.12 .113 8.04 

This table shows that a substance containing nitro- 
gen was thrown out and with it some ash, and Dr. 
Babcock concluded that the ash or at least a portion of it 
was not in combination with the caseine. 

41. Caseine and Albumen, Hotv Separated. 

Caseine is coagulated by rennet and dilute acids, but 
not by ordinary heat. Caseine is precipitated by heat of 
265° F., which is secured only under pressure, while the 
albumen is coagulated by heat and not by rennet or acids. 



Milk Solids not Fat. 45 

If after coagulating milk with either rennet or dilute acids 
the whey is heated to 180° F., a white precipitate (which 
is the coagulated albumen) is thrown down. 

The proteine substances, both caseine and albumen, 
increase in the milk with the period of lactation. The 
following table compiled by Dr. VanSlyke shows this in- 
crease : 

Table showing effect of period of lactation upon 
the per cent, of caseine and albumen in milk : 



Month of 


Per Gent. 


Per Gent. 


Per Gent. 


^actation. 


Proteine. 


Gaseine. 


Albumen, 


1 


3.00 


2.45 


.55 


2 


2.96 


2.45 


.51 


3 


3.08 


2.51 


.57 


4 


3.10 


2.48 


.62 


5 


3.10 


2.55 


.55 


6 


3.75 


2.65 


.92 


7 


3.66 


2.91 


.75 


8 


3.77 


3.00 


.77 


9 


4.03 


3.15 


.88 


10 


5.05 


3.66 


1.39 



There is usually three and a half times as much 
caseine as albumen in cow's milk. 

42. Milk Su^ar. 

Milk sugar, or lactose, forms one-third of the solids 
of the milk, and more than half of the solids of separator 
skim milk. It is less sweet than beet or cane sugar, and 
is obtained commercially from the whey at cheese fac- 
tories. 

43. Sugrar, Ho^v Obtained. 

An easy experiment can be made by first coagu- 
lating a quart of skim milk with rennet or acid. Strain 
out the curd and then heat to the boiling point and the 
albumen will be precipitated. Let this settle and decant 
the clear liquid or filter it and then boil the clear liquid 
to dryness. The milk sugar and ash will be left behind 



46 Elements of Dairying. 

in the form of a white powder. Milk sugar has not been 
studied as much as the fat and caseine, but it is reported 
to vary from three to six per cent., with an average of 
five per cent. It is a carbohydrate and is valuable in 
whey or skim milk for feeding to calves or pigs. 



CHAPTER VI* 
THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ]SHLK. 

44. Physical Condition of Milk. 

We have seen in the preceding chapters that milk 
consists largely of water in which are dissolved the 
sugar, most of the ash and the albumen, while the caseine 
is held in a colloidal state and some of the ash in suspen- 
sion. This forms the milk serum (same dS separator 
skim milk) in w^hich the fat is held in emulsion. 

45. Specific Gravity. 

If we take a barrel that will just hold 1000 pounds of 
water at a temperature of 60° F. and fiU it with milk 
serum, we will find that the barrel will hold approxi- 
mately 1036 pounds, and we say that the skim milk, or 
milk serum, has a specific gravity of 1.036. 

If we fill it with butter fat at 60° F. less than 1000 
pounds or 930 pounds will fill it, and it has a sp. g. of .93. 
The fat in whole milk being much lighter than the other 
solids reduces the specific gravity to perhaps 1.032. The 
lowest specific gravity of pure milk that has been found 
w^as 1.029. 

If the temperature of the substance in the barrel be 
raised, for each degree approximately one-tenth of a 
pound will run over the top, caused by the expansion. 
If the temperature be lowered, the milk will contract so 
that for each degree, approximately one-tenth of a pound 
more may be put into the barrel. 

47 



48 Elements of Dairying. 

46. Lactometer. 

An instrument known as the lactometer, being a 
weighted glass bulb with a long stem at the top upon 
w^hich is written a scale, just floats in water of 60° F. to 
the zero mark. In milk of 1.032 sp. g. it is bouyed up 
until it reaches the corresponding point on the scale. 
By means of the lactometer the specific gravity of milks 
can be obtained. Both butter fat and water when added 
to milk reduce the specific gravity. 

When the right amount of water is added to sepa- 
rator skim milk, the lactometer which does not distin- 
guish the difi:*erence between fat and water, but simply 
shows that it is lighter, might lead us to believe that the 
milk is pure when the facts are, that it is both skimmed 
and watered. If we call the Babcock test to our aid it 
will tell us whether the fat is there, and by using both 
instruments we can readily determine the adulteration. 

47. Creaiiiiiig- of Milk. 

The fat globules, being lighter than the surrounding 
serum, have a tendency to rise by the action of the force 
of gravity. If we take a glass cylinder or bottle, and 
fill it with soap solution and shake it to incorporate air, 
and then set it down, the air bubbles will rise to the top 
forming a lather (or cream). It will be observed that the 
large bubbles rise much faster than the smaller ones. 
The air in the bubbles is all the same kind of air. In 
like manner the large fat globules rise faster than the 
small ones. It is not because the fat in the large globules 
is any different than in the small ones. i\ctual analyses 
of the fats have shown them to be identical in every way. 

48. Viscosity. 

The milk serum is slightly viscous, or sticky, like 
molasses, and the colder it is the more viscous it be- 



The Physical Properties of Milk. 49 

comes. Skim milk at the freezing point may become so 
viscous that it can be whipped up into a froth. This 
stickiness of the milk serum holds the fat globules back 
like a brake, or they would quickly form a layer of pure 
fat on the top. The large fat globules have less surface 
than the small ones in proportion to their cubical couj 
tents, and consequently the difference between upward 
gravity pressure and the brake pressure is greatest in the 
large globules:. 

49. L<a\^' Governing; Creaming'. 

The law that governs this physical phenomenon 
is stated as follows : The surfaces of two spheres are to 
each other as the squares of their diameters, while their 
cubical contents are to each other as the cubes of their 
diameters. 

For example : Suppose we have two spheres, one two 
inches in diameter and the other four — 




Their squares would be 16 and 4. 

Their cubes would be 64 and 8. 

While the four-inch cube is twice the diameter, its 
•surface is four times and its cubical contents eight times 
that of the smaller one. Applying this law to two fat 
globules of the same proportion, we can see that while 
the large globule is forced up with eight times the 
pressure of the smaller one. it is retarded bv only four 



50 Elements of Dairying. 

times the force, and consequently rises faster in that 
proportion. 

50. Definition of Cream. 

Cream is a portion of the milk serum into which the 
fat globules have been crowded. 

If the fat globules are pushed close together it is a 
rich cream, but if they are farther apart it is a thinner 
cream. 

Cream may test only 10% or 15% fat, or it may test 
60%. Ordinary gravity cream runs from 18% to 25%,, 
while a centrifugal separator can be set to take cream 
testmg anywhere from 15% to 60%. 

Cream contams all the elements of the milk serum,, 
and they are present in inverse proportion to the amount 
of fat present. If the cream tests 50%. fat the amount of 
serum elements will be just half as much as in the sepa- 
rator skim milk. 

51. EfEeet of Temperature I poii Creaming. 

We have found that as the temperature of the serum 
is lowered, it becomes more viscous and we may expect 
it to retard the rising of the fat. There is another factor 
which steps in here. At about 50° F. the fat seems to 
take on a harder condition, so that the globules slip 
through the serum much more readily. Thorough sepa- 
ration, of the cream cannot be obtained at temperatures 
above 50° F. As well water usually comes from the 
ground at temperatures higher than 50°, exhaustive- 
creaming cannot be obtained by setting the cans of milk 
in such water. For effective gravity creaming, ice water 
(which, of course, means not warm water with a little- 
ice in it, but water cooled to 40° F. with ice) is absolutely 
necessarv. 



The Physical Properties of Milk. 51 

The milk in the can begins to drop in temperature, 
the colder milk falling to the bottom, until all of the milk 
reaches the temperature of the water. 

Below are given the results of deep setting experi- 
ments, one case being where the milk was set in ice water 
at 40° and the other in water at 60°. 

Table showing progress of creaming of milk at 90° 
F. set in water at 40° and 60°. Samples were taken 
from the bottom, middle and top of milk just below the 
cream line : 

Set in Water 40° F. Set in Water 60° F. 
Per Cent. Temperature Per Cent. 

Time from Section Fat in of Fat in 

Setting. of Can. Milk. Section. Milk. 

t^)p 5T0 W 4^48 

15 minutes Middle 5.0 69° 4.50 

Bottom 4.95 56^ 4.40 

Top 4.95 60° 4.50 

30 minutes Middle 4.90 57° 4.40 . 

B ottom 3.60 49^ 4.45 

Top 3.40 54= 

60 minutes Middle 3.20 52° 4.50 

Bottom 1.95 46^ . 3.92 

Top 3.60 50° 5.20 

2 hours Middle 3.00 47° 3.90 

Bottom 1.05 42^ .... 

Top 1.55 45° 3.55 

4hours Middle 1.35 45° 3.00 

Bottom .65 4r 2.30 

Top 1.20 45° 3.00 

51/2 hours Middle l.lo 45° 2.95 

B ottom .55 43^ 2.18 

Top .... ... 2.45 

15 hours Middle .... ... 2.30 

B ottom .... ^^^_ 1.20 

Top .50 44° .40 

36 hours Middle .45 44° 

Bottom .20 44^ .... 

The above table shows that much better creaming 
was done in ice water in five hours than in water at 60° 
in three times that length of time. It also shows that 



52 Elements of Dairying. 

something is to be gained even in ice water by leaving 
it as long as 36 hours. 

In experiments reported at the Cornell, N. Y., Ex- 
periment Station, Cooley cans set in ice water showed a 
loss of .28% when set in water at 60° F. 

52. Sliallovr Setting. 

In shallow pans where the fat does not have as far 
to rise, when set in air at 60°, the loss was .48%. When 
cotton seed meal is fed to cows, the temperature at which 
equal effectiveness is secured is four or five degrees 
higher (22). 

53. Dilution Creaniins". 

In 1892 there was an open winter when but little 
ice was harvested, and dairymen were compelled to use 
some method of getting the cream out of the milk. It 
was suggested that the milk be diluted to reduce the 
viscosity. 

The fact that the specific gravity of the serum was 
also reduced seems not to have been considered. A 
cream line will form very quickly by this method, and the 
depth of the cream being considered, the dairymen con- 
cluded that they got it all. The facts are that such 
cream tests from 7% to 15% fat, and the greater part of 
the fat is left in the skim milk. Even after leaving the 
milk to set for 34 hours, 25% to 35% of the butter fat 
still remains in the watered skim milk. Since 1893, up 
to the present time, a great many dilution creamers under 
different names have been sold, the manufacturers often 
grossly misrepresenting their efficiency. Professor 
Wing of Cornell published two bulletins exposing the 
fraud. In these bulletins he reports experiments which 
show the losses, where both hot and cold water was 
used for dilution, to have been 1.11% to 1.28% fat. 



The Physical Properties of Milk. 53 

Where hot water is used the cream gets rancid 
quicker, making an inferior quahty of butter, and the 
diluted skim milk is of inferior feeding value. The 
cream being thin causes great losses of fat in the butter 
milk. 

54. Creaming Under Air Pressure. 

In 1891, a contrivance known as the Berrigan sepa- 
rator was brought out, in which the milk was placed un- 
der an air pressure of thirty pounds to the square inch 
for a short time. It was claimed that the fat would 
all rise to the top very quickly. Repeated trials at the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station and at Cornell proved 
that there was nothing in the claims made for the device. 

55. Tlie Centrifagral Separator. 

When a pail of water is swung over the head, the 
water though in a pail upside down does not fall out. 
The centrifugal force thus created is stronger than the 
force of gravity. When a liquid is revolved in a per- 
pendicular cylinder it is thrown up against the walls of 
the cylinder on account of the centrifugal force, and the 
faster the cylinder revolves the greater is the force 
exerted. In the case of milk in the separator bowl, the 
fat being lighter than the serum, is thrown against the 
walls of the bowl, but is not thrown with as much 
force and soon forms a cream line on the inner surface 
of the liquid. If the bowl is constantly filled to over- 
flowing, the liquid must flow out at the same rate. A 
little opening allows the cream to escape and it is caught 
in a pan surrounding the bowl as it flies ofif. The skim 
milk is freest from fat globules near the peripheral walls 
of the bowl, small tubes leading to the top and near the 
center of the bowl allow tlie skim milk to flow out from 
this point. Changing the relation of the( skim milk 



54 Elements of Dairying. 

and cream outlets, with reference to their distance from 
the center^ will regulate the proportion of cream taken 
and consequently its richness in fat. By carrying the 
cream outlet nearer the center, the fat globules are 
crowded closer together before getting out. Turning 
it farther from the center makes a thinner cream. 

The various devices in the bowls of the dififerent 
makes of separators are to make the milk travel a longer 
distance before getting out, and thus increase the ca- 
pacity. The best machines on the market will skim up 
to the capacity claimed, taking cream testing 40% fat 
and leave not over .05% fat in the skim milk. The 
machines should do this with milk at a temperature of 
90° F. In buying a machine the salesman should be 
asked to guarantee the machine to do these things. 

56. Factors Aflectiiis' Centrifugal Separation. 

The efficiency of a separator is afifected by the speed 
of the bowl, the temperature of the milk, and the rate 
at which the milk flows through it. The thickness of 
the cream will be affected by the adjustment of the cream 
screw, the temperature of the milk, the rate of flow of 
milk through the bowl, and the speed of the bowl. 

57. Dnral>ility of Separators. 

The life of a machine depends, of course, upon the 
construction of the machine, and likewise upon the care 
it receives. Dirt and poor oil, and harsh handling will 
wear out a machine in short order when it might other- 
wise last a long tim_e. The expense of a machine is not 
so much in the cost of material, as in the skilled labor in 
its manufacture. The bowl has to be turned, tinned, 
and carefuUv balanced. 



The Physical Properties of Milk. 55 

58. Theory of Clmrningf. 

A theory was formerly current that the fat globule 
was enveloped in a membrane which was broken in 
churning*, but no one has ever seen such a membrane, 
and many people have seen under the microscope the 
soft fat globules running together. If the temperature 
is high enough that the fat is soft and pasty, the "butter 
comes" quickly. On the other hand if the temperature 
is below 50° F., the butter will not churn. Our grand- 
mothers used to drop a red hot horseshoe into the cream 
to drive out the witches and the butter would come — 
simply because the fat was warmed up enough to make 
it soft enough to stick together. 

59. Varieties of Clinriis. 

A great many churns have been patented and placed 
upon the market, with the claim that they will bring 
butter in five minutes. Among these churns are a num- 
ber of machines going under the enticing name of ''but- 
ter separator," of similar construction, in which a 
turbine wheel inserted in a vessel of wood, stone or 
metal draws a current of air down a hollow shaft into 
the cream. It is claimed that the air oxidizes and does 
many things unknown to chemists, eventually sepa- 
rating the butter in five minutes. When the air shaft is 
closed with a cork the device works just as well without 
the air. and the time for churning increases as the tem- 
perature of the cream or milk is lowered. Of the many 
churns invented none is better or more ef^cient than the 
common box or barrel churn. 

60. Effect of Teinperatiire Ipon Cliiiriiinjsj:. 

When the temperature of the cream is high enough 
to make the butter come in five minutes, the fat is so 



50 Elements of Dairying. 

soft that the butter is soft and the grain becomes greasy 
and salvy in handhng, salting and working. 

Quick churning is, therefore, at the expense of the 
quahty of the butter. Cream churns best — that is, the 
most exhaustively and makes the best grained butter, 
when the cream is rich in fat (35%) and the tempera- 
ture low (but little above 50° F.). When cream is thin, 
the large fat globules strike and accumulate into gran- 
ules before the smaller globules have a chance to come 
into contact with other globules. The result is that there 
is not only a large amount of butter milk in which to 
lose fat, but it is richer in fat. 

61. Advantage of Rich. Cream, 

By having the cream thick, the globules of fat are 
brought so close together that the small globules must 
strike other globules. By churning at a low tempera- 
ture when the fat is harder, the time of churning is ex- 
tended, giving the small globules a longer time in which 
to get a chance to adhere. The result is that there is 
less butter milk in which to lose fat, and the fat test of it 
is low. If the cream is very thin, it will be found neces- 
sary to raise the temperature to such a point, that the 
globules will be soft enough that when they do strike 
they will adhere. It is sometimes found necessary to 
raise the temperature of thin cream to 65° F. in order to 
get the butter to come at all. 

62. Clinrning' Cream From Strippers' Milk. 

In case of stripper cows when the fats are harder or 
where cove's have been fed on cotton seed meal, thus 
hardening the fat, it is necessary to raise the churning 
temperature. 



The Physical Properties of AIilk. 57 

63. lieasoii Cream Tlticlceiisi Before Breaking,'. 

Cream will thicken in the churn just before the but- 
ter comes. If the cream is rich in fat, 40% or above, it 
will become so thick that it will not drop in the churn, 
and it is necessary to thin it up with water in order to 
continue churning. The fat globules that at first had 
room enough to pass each other, begin to stick together, 
and their rough edges stick out against each other so 
that they cannot pass, and the whole mass of them being 
unable to move past each other makes the cream a mass 
that will not drop in the churn. The addition of water 
gives them a chance to pass. 

We may conclude from these conditions that cream 
should be about 35% fat for best results in churning. 
Richer cream will stick in the churn, and thinner cream 
gives more butter milk in which to lose fat^ and the per- 
centages of fat are higher, as borne out by experiment. 

64. Viscosity AflEected by Condition of Pat. 

We have seen that before the cream oreaks into 
butter in the churn, it becomes thicker, and that this is 
because of the grouping of the fat globules. 

Cream raised by the gravity process appears thicker, 
or more viscous, than separator cream of the same fat 
content. Cream pasteurized at temperatures above 140° 
seem thinner than before pasteurization, and milk pas- 
teurized above 140° F. sometimes fails to show a cream 
line. The microscope has revealed the cause. 

In the gravity creaming, and in milk that stands, 
the fat globules at first separated from each other begin 
to collect in little groups, and the ferment galactase 
probably clots some of the proteine around them, binding 
them together. 






f^-'T 



< 



IT 



^ '.'^ «o' 









•o - 






'^<Vj 



The fat globules as seen under a microscope where 
■cream or milk has been pasteurized above 1 40 deg. F. 




The fat globules as seen under a microscope, where 
milk or cream has not been pasteurized above 140 
deg. F., or where yiscogen has been added. 



The Physical Properties of Milk. 59 

in passing through the centrifugal separator or in 
heating above 1^0° F. these clots are broken up. It has 
already been pointed out that large globules in milk rise 
faster than the smaller ones. In like manner groups of 
globules rise faster than single ones. If the groups are 
broken up by pasteurization, a cream line may not form 
even though all of the fat be present. 

65. Viscogen. 

The greater viscosity of gravity and unpasteurized 
cream is caused by the fat globules elbowing each other 
and making the whole liquid appear thicker. Anything 




Cut from Wisconsin Experiment Station Report, showing a glass plate on 
which drops of cream have been placed and the glass then inclined. The drops in 
which there was no viscogen ran down the plate, while the ones treated with visco- 
gen did net run. 

that will restore the grouping of the globules will restore 
the viscosity. Drs. Babcock and Russell have suggested 
the use of sucrate of lime for this purpose. It is pre- 
pared as follows : Two and one-half parts of cane sugar 
are dissolved in five parts of water. One part of un- 
slaked Hme is put into three parts of water, fhe white- 
wash and sugar solution are then mixed thorouglTly (m 
a barrel churn) and agitated occasionally for two or three 



GO Elements of Dairying. 

hours and then allowed to settle. The clear liquid on top 
is called yiscogen. When added to cream the fat glob- 
ules are formed into groups and the cream is thereby 
made more viscous. 

66. Ho^\' to Use Aiscogren. 

\ iscogen is alkaline in reaction and if too much is 
used, the cream will have a disagreeable odor. It is 
perfectly harmless as used in cream, but should not be 
used unless the customer is made aware of the fact by a 
proper label on the package. If called "\ isco cream" 
it becomes a distinct article under that name. If sold 
just simply as cream, it could be considered an adultera- 
tion. 

To use the viscogen, take a pint of milk and a 
pipette or burette, graduated to tenths of a cubic centi- 
meter. Gradually run the viscogen into the cream^ 
stirring it in. Have a 10% solution of phenolphtalein 
in alcohol and pour a few drops on a white paper. With 
a glass rod place a drop of cream on the indicator solu- 
tion (phenolphtalein). As soon as the acid of the cream 
has been neutralized by the alkaline viscogen the drop 
of cream will turn pink. 

If it took four cubic centimeters of the viscogen to 
neutralize a pint, or pound, of cream, 400 c.c. would be 
required to neutralize 100 pounds. But if enough is 
used to entirely neutralize the cream, the disagreeable 
odor will appear. Use half or two-thirds the quantity 
necessary to neutralize and the viscosity will be increased 
and the flavor improved. 

67. Wliipping: Cream. 

The whipping of cream depends upon its viscosity. 
The viscosity depends upon the solids not fat as affected 
by temperature, and by the fat globules. 



The Physical Properties of Milk. 61 

Skim milk can be whipped into a froth at the freez- 
ing point. This shows the effect of the soHds not fat on 
viscosity, apart from the effect of the fat globules. Thin 
cream thickens as it sours. This is because of the forma- 
tion of caseine clots and the grouping of fat globules. 
Housewives often try to vv^hip cream of 20% fat content 
without success, because it is not cold enough. Glass 
is a poor conductor of heat and a glass bottle that has 
been "against the ice for twelve hours" may contain 
cream of a temperature as high as 50° F. Such cream 
may whip nicely at 32°, but not at 50°. Cream of 30% 
fat will whip nicely at 50° F. when 20% will not, and 
40%) will whip still better. Ageing cream allows the fat 
globules to gather in groups, when it will whip more 
readily. , 

68. Beaten Cream. 

Beaten cream is made from rich cream whipped at 
a churning, or just a little lower temperature. The 
beaten appearance is made by the butter granules when 
they are very fine, but cannot be discerned as butter. It 
is cream in just the same condition as in the churn just 
before the butter comes. 

69. Skim Milk. 

Skim milk is milk from which a portion of the fat has 
been removed. The fat of whole milk is usually one- 
third of the total sohds. The Ohio law says that it must 
be at least one-fourth of the total sohds. The fat may 
be removed by either the gravity or centrifugal methods. 
The centrifugal machines will remove all but a trace of 
the fat, but no machine made will skim absolutely clean. 
The microscope will still show a few very small globules 
of fat. At the Cornell Experiment Station a number of 



63 Elements of Dairying. 

tests of different methods of creaming were made with 
average results, as follows : 

Milk Test, 
- Method of Creaming. Per Cent. Fat. 

Whole milk used 4.24 % 

Cooley cans set in water 40° F 29 % 

Centrifugal separator 09% 

Dilution creamer 59 % 

Cooley cans in water at 60° 1.00% 

At the Wisconsin Station cold deep setting was 
compared with the centrifugal method as follows : 

Loss of Fat in Pounds Per 100 Pounds Milk Set. 
Lot 12345 

Deep setting 148 .257 .239 .245 .382 

Centrifugal separator. .107 .109 .110 .100 .129 
In favor of centrifugal 

separator 041 .148 .129 .135 .258 

Skim milk contains all of the solids of the milk ex- 
cept the fat which has been taken out, and is, therefore,, 
of great feeding value. 

70. Butter Milk. 

Butter milk is the same in composition as skim milk 
though it is usually sour. The butter fat has been gath- 
ered out by the process of churning, leaving the other 
solids of the milk behind. 

71. Artificial Butter Milk. 

A growing demand for buttermilk in cities is met by 
souring whole milk or skim milk and churning it to 
break up the coagulated caseine. Whole milk is used so 
that a few butter granules may be present to announce 
to the consimier that it is real buttermilk. 



CHAPTER VIL 
Butter ^^jvd Cheese. 

72. History of Butter and Cheese. 

The dair}^ business is of ancient origin. Abraham 
(Genesis^ 18 :S) is said to have put butter, milk and a 
dressed calf before his guests. Jesse sent David to the 
camp of the army of Israel with ten small cheese^ about 
three thousand years before the days of daisies. Young 
Americas, longhorns and ten-pound prints. It is re- 
corded in Proverbs 30 :33 that "the churning of milk 
bringeth butter." 

The dairy business in the great continent of Asia 
cannot have progressed much since those days, for the 
milk is still churned by being dragged at a rapid rate in 
a skin pouch behind a horse^ and a lady writing from 
Sidon, Syria, says that clarified butter is boiled and 
skimmed, and that she does not "indulge." The inhabi- 
tants of the great Thibetan plateau have butter as a staple 
article of trade. They not only eat it, but smear it on 
their faces and bodies to make them shine, beside burn- 
ing butter in lamps. Dr. Susie J. Rinhart, in her in- 
tensely interesting book, ''With the Thibetans in Tent 
and Temple," tells of people gathering from all over 
Western China, Mongolia, and Thibet to the ''Festival of 
the Butter God." This occurs annually. 

An image of Bhudda twenty feet high carved out 
of butter, with smaller butter idols and butter lamps 
were the center of attraction. , 

63 



(14 Elements of Dairying. 

The heat from the lamps finally melted the gods which 
were thrown out into a ravine to be devoured by dogs 
and vultures. 

American creamery butter packed in sealed tins is 
now reaching the orient, and the sleeping giant may yet 
awake to higher ideals of the quality of first-class dairy 
products. 

73. Butter. 

Butter is not pure fat. It is a mixture of milk fat, 
w^ater. salt, and caseine. An analysis of average butter 
will probably show : 

Fat 84% 

Water 12% 

Salt 3 % 

Caseine 1 % 

Like other dairy products, butter will vary in its 
composition within certain limits. 

When cream is churned, the fat gathers into gran- 
ules, the buttermilk is drained out, and in order to get 
rid of the milk serum further, it is washed. Some 
curdled caseine will be left behind. This may be less 
than half a per cent, or it may be considerably more. It 
is desirable to get rid of it as completely as possible, as 
it damages the keeping qualities of the Dutter. Salt is 
added, a large part of which dissolves and runs ofT in the 
form of brine. Wherever the salt strikes the butter, it 
deepens the color, and if the salt is not evenly distributed, 
it will cause the butter to be streaked and mottled. To 
distribute the salt, the butter is worked over and pressed 
together, and in so doing water between the particles is 
expelled. 



Butter and Cheese. 6o 

74. Over-ruii. 

By careful skimming, and by close churning, and 
careful working of the butter, it is possible to get one- 
sixth over-run ; that is, one-sixth more butter than the 
fat in the milk, but the usual results are one-tenth to one- 
eighth more. 

It is seldom that as much as 16% water can be in- 
corporated into the butter, and it usually runs between 
11% and 13%. It is impossible to get an over-run of 
25% of marketable butter. 

If a butter maker says he gets 25% over-run one of 
three things is true ; either it is not good butter, he has 
read his fat test too low, or he misrepresents. 

75. Renovated Butter. 

A large portion of the butter made in the United 
States is made on farms under unfavorable conditions. 
While some dairy butter is of first quality and com- 
pares favorably with creamery butter, it is as a class 
poor. It is sold at country stores in exchange for gro- 
ceries, and becomes very rancid and foul smelling. It is 
brought together into large quantities and bought up 
by process men and renovated. It is melted up and put 
through a deodorizing process, is granulated and 
churned in ripened milk, and made into butter. Much 
of this has in the past been sold for creamery butter. The 
law^ passed by Congress, which went into effect July 1, 
1902, putting a tax of ten cents per pound on oleo col- 
ored yellow like butter, also put a tax of ten cents on 
this material and called it ''renovated" instead of "pro- 
cess butter," and requires that each package be marked 
"Renovated Butter." A heavy fine is imposed for the 
violation of the same. Canada prohibits its manufac- 
ture. Anv creamerv man who w^orks over a bad batch 



G6 Elements of Dairying. 

of butter by remelting and rechurning it, is liable to a 
heavy fine, as this may be classed as renovated butter. 

The process men claim that an injustice has been 
done dairy farmers by the enaction of this law, as the 
process men made a way for them to get rid of their poor 
butter. 

But the public was being imposed upon, and the 
farmer who was making poor butter was losing money 
by so doing, and at the same time the process business 
kept a bad thing going. 

These are days of cooperative industry. The farmer 
should unite with his neighbors in securing a skilled 
operator to turn his cream into butter at nearly double 
the price of poor country butter, and he himself should 
give better attention to producing good milk and cream 
from which to make first-class butter. 

The oleo fraud was taking the field of 1600 average 
creameries in 1901. People do not want traud' — they 
want a good article. Poor butter forced some people 
to eat oleo. Most people were deceived by the color. 
They do not want uncolored oleo, as shown by the reve- 
nue statistics of 1902-3, when fifty-three milhon pounds 
less oleo w^as made than in the previous year. It would 
take 650 creameries to make that much butter. 

76. Cheese. 

Cheese of the different varieties is made by coagu- 
lating the milk with rennet, a ferment from the calf's 
stomach, and then cutting the curd into small pieces, 
from which the whey, which is the water of the milk with 
the soluble ash, sugar and albumen, exudes. The fat 
globules are caught in the coagulum, but a few globules 
are knocked off from the surfaces of the curd particles 
into the whey. The curd contracts until it becomes quite 



Butter and Cheese. 67 

firm, and is removed from the liquid whey. The whey 
is of the same composition as skim milk, minus the 
caseine. 

The richer the milk is in fat, the more and richer 
cheese it will make. 

77. Food Value of Clieese. 

Cheddar cheese made from average full cream milk 
is composed as follows : 

Water 37 % 

Fat 34 % 

Caseine 24 % 

Ash, etc 5 % 

100 % 
Meat Contains — 

Water 50 % to 75 % 

Proteine 15 % to 20 % 

Fat 15% to 20% 

Ash 1% to 3% 

It will thus be seen that cheese contains twice as 

much food value as meat, and a pound of cheese can 

usually be purchased for less money than a pound of 

meat; 95.55% of cheese is absorbed m the digestive 

tract. 

78. Yield and Quality of Cheese as Aft'eeted by Milk. 

If the fat is less than the other solids of the cheese 
it was made from skimmed milk, or its equivalent, of 
very poor milk. It is really a matter of the ratio be- 
tween caseine and fat as shown in the following table : 

Pounds Fat for 
No. Samples Per Cent. Per Cent. Each Pound 

Analyzed. Caseine. Fat. Caseine. 

68 2.80 2.30 .82 

135 2.78 2.62 .94 

278 2.86 2.86 1.00 

224 2.89 3.02 1.04 

337 3.09 3.53 1.14 

364 3.27 4.02 1.23 

216 3.52 4.54 1.29 

152 3.54 4.92 1.38 



68 Elements of Dairying. 

An average of 55U0 samples of milk reported by 
Dr. VanSlyke of fat tests between 3% and 5% showed: 

Total solids, 12.29% ; fat, 3.92% ; proteine, 3.2%, or 
about the same as given in the chart in Chapter II of this 
book. The ratio between caseine and fat was 1 : 1.225. 

The effect of this ratio on the yield and quality of 
cheese is shown in the following table, the richer cheese 
being correspondingly better in quality, and worth more 
money per pound. 

Table showing the results of the milk fifty herds of 
cows made into cheese : 







Pounds Fat 


Yield of 


Per Cent. 


Per Gent. 


Per Cent. 


for Each 


Cheese per 100 


Fat 


Fat in Milk. 


Gaseine. 


Pound Cas&ine. 


Pounds Milk. 


in Cheese. 


3.00 


2.10 


1.43 


8.85 


32.2 


3.25 


2.20 


1.48 


9.10 


32.9 


3.50 


2.30 


1.52 


9.60 


33.9 


3.75 


2.40 


1.56 


10.10 


34.7 


4.00 


2.50 


1.60 


10.65 


35.2 


4.25 


2.60 


1.63 


11.20 


35.7 


4.50 


2.70 


1.67 


11.70 


36.3 



Skimming out the fat lowers the ratio between 
caseine and fat, and the cheese made from the 3% milk is 
like a light skim cheese. Under date of May 11, 1903, 
the New York cheese market quotations were as follows : 

Full creams 11@11 3-8c 

Light skims 9c 

Part skims 6(a)7c 

Fair to good skims ,. 5@6c 

Common skims 3c 

Full skims 2c 

The cheese made from 3% milk contains 32.2% of fat 

and compares to a light skim cheese, while that made 

from milk testing 4.5% fat will bring the highest market 

price. 

8.85 lbs. cheese (a) 9 cts. = 79.65 cts. 

11.70 lbs. cheese @ 11.3 cts. = 145.43 cts. 
Difference in price of 100 

lbs. milk 65.78 cts. 



Butter and Cheese. 69' 

The above figures illustrate that the method of pool- 
ing all qualities of milk at a cheese factory at the same 
price per hundred pounds is very unjust. 

The term ''full cream" is used to indicate that the 
milk used in the manufacture was full cream — that is, 
had had no cream taken from it. From this the im- 
pression has gone out that ''cream" cheese is something 
extra fine. Although a fine grade of cheese can be made 
from milk to which cream has been added, this is never 
practiced. The tendency as has been explained, is rather 
to take cream out. 



CHAPTER VUL 
CONTAMUVATION OF MiLK. 

79. Flavor of Milk, How AflEected. 

Upon standing, milk begins to decompose and take 
on different odors. 

There are said to be three ways in which milk may 
take on odors. 

First. By the food the cow eats. Cows eating 
onions or garlic in large quantities have shown the 
characteristic odor in their flesh when slaughtered im- 
mediately after. There is no doubt but that such flavors 
get into the milk. Professor F. H. King conducted some 
experiments at the Wisconsin Experiment Station from 
which he drew the conclusion that in order to detect the 
odors, the strong flavored foods must be fed within two 
hours before milking. 

Second. By absorption. Milk, especially when 
warm, will absorb bad odors. It has been suggested that 
perhaps the strong flavor due to food was not carried 
through the cow, but through the air, and is after all a 
matter ot absorption. 

Third. Bacteria growing in milk may cause its de- 
composition, and consequently bad odors. 

80. Bacteria. 

Bacteria get into the milk during the process of, and 
subsequent to. the time of drawing from the udder. A 
few bacteria may work their way up into the teat, but 
thev are practically all expelled with the first few squirts. 

70 



Contamination of Milk. 71 

The cow may have been lying down in filth, and during 
the agitation of milking the dust and hairs will be dis- 
lodged and fall into the milk. Each particle of dust, and 
•each hair may have numerous bacteria clinging to it. 
The milker's hands and clothes may also be a source of 
infection. After the milk is in the pail, dirt in the 
crevices may contaminate it with bacteria, and as it goes 
on its way through different vessels, it may receive in- 
creasing contributions of germs. Milk delivered in open 
vessels in the cities, gets contributions from the dust 
blown about the streets. Several hundred bacteria have 
been counte.d on a single hair. 

IMPROPER PAILS. 





A and a show crevices in seams into which the milk goes, forming a 
layer of food for bacteria. B shows how the crevices should be filled 
with solder.— Russell. 

Milk from four dirty cows in a clean barn with clean 
milkers gave an average of 90,000 bacteria in each cubic 
centimeter of milk, while clean cows under the same 
conditions gave only 2000, or only one-forty-fifth as 
many. 

In a case where there were twelve cows in a stable, 
a bacterial count show^ed the milk of eleven to contain 
few bacteria, but the milk of the twelfth one standing 



72 Elements of Dairying. 

next to a pile of dry feed contained 100,000 per cubic 
centimeter. 

Dry feed handled just previous to, or during the 
time of milking, may furnish bacteria-laden dust. 

81. Germicidal Properties of >IilU. 

Dr. W. H. Conn says that milk has a germicidal 
property. There is a preliminary period of the decline 
of the number of bacteria, this period varying from three 
to forty hours according to the temperature, and also 
possibly with the cows. At 70°, this period is six to nine 
hours. At 50°, it is forty hours. 

82. Growth of Bsicteria. 

When the germicidal property of the milk is ex- 
hausted the germs increase in numbers, but the rate of 
increase is reduced by low temperature. 

Rate of increase of single germ : 

2 Hours. 3 Hours. 4 Hours. 

At 54° 4 6 8 

At 97° 23 60 215 

Bacteria found in milk may be classified as neutral, 
lactic, putrefactive and pathogenic. 

In milk are found numerous species of bacteria that 
increase in numbers, but do not seem to change the char- 
acter of the milk any. 

The lactic bacteria are those that have the property 
of souring milk, of which about 200 species have been 
observed. 

83. Acidity of Milk. 

The caseine of milk has an acid reaction so that cow's 
milk freshly drawn from the udder will show .10 to .15% 
of what is usually classed as lactic acid, though it is not 
such. The bacteria act on the milk sugar, breaking it 



5 Hours. 


6 Hours. 


26 


435 


1830 


3800 



Contamination of AIilk. 7'6 

up into lactic acid. When .3% acid has developed the 
milk begins to taste sour, and at .7 or .8 of a per cent., 
according to the temperature, it curdles. The bacteria 
go on forming more acid until about .9% is present, and 
it then inhibits their growth. The sugar of which there 
was 5% when the bacteria began to grow, has not all 
been used up. There is still about 4% left. 

Milk that has more than .7% acid is not commonly 
received at factories for butter and cheese making, nor 
by milk dealers for consumption. Lactic acid bacteria 
do not grow much below 45° F. Other more dangerous 
forms may grow below that temperature. 

84. Putrefactive Bacteria. 

Under the head of putrefactive forms we may class 
those bacteria that produce gas, digest the proteine, pro- 
duce bad odors, and a few other peculiar kinds. 

Cheese makers are often bothered with pin holes 
developing in the curd and cheese. These holes are due 
to gas-forming bacteria, one form being Coli communis, 
which is found in barnyard filth. Another form, found 
in northern New York and Canada, causes rusty spots 
in cheese. Still another kind causes slimy milk and 
grows at low temperatures. This particular germ is 
surrounded with a gelatinous envelope, and when the 
bacteria become numerous enough they make the milk 
ropy or slimy. 

An odor resembling soft soap in milk has been 
traced to bacteria. It may be said that the putrefactive 
kinds of bacteria are usually associated with and arise 
from filthy conditions. 

85. Patliosenic Bacteria. 

Many forms of disease are trated to definite species 
of bacteria. 



'''-i Elements of Dairying. 

Probably one hundred epidemics ot typhoid fever 
and diptheria have been definitely traced to the milk 
supply. 

Probably one hundred epidemics of typhoid fever 
have been carried by milk, the original source being a 
well or spring, the water of which was used to rinse the 
pails and cans in it, and the milk afterward being put into 
these vessels was inoculated. 

Lactic bacteria are likely present in very small num- 
bers in the milk soon after it is drawn from the udder, and 
if present will multiply very rapidly and crowd out other 
forms. Lactic acid bacteria are very desirable in butter 
making and certain forms of cheese making. Pure 
cultures of bacteria are now put upon the market on a 
large scale. Orin Douglas, and Kieth of Boston and 
Chr. Hansen's Laboratory at Little Falls, New York, 
each does a large business. 

86. How to Combat Bacteria. 

Bacteria may be killed with poisons such as forma- 
lin, boric and salicylic acids, etc., but in milk these are 
very dangerous to the health of people using the milk, 
are prohibited by law, and their use in milk is to be 
condemmed. 

87. Keep Bacteria Out. 

The best way to produce good milk is to prevent 
as far as possible the bacteria getting in. To this end 
the cows should be kept carded and clean, the stable 
should be well lighted and ventilated, hay should not 
be stored overhead if the floor is loose so that dirt may 
sift down. The stalls should be so constructed as to 
keep the cows out of filth. 



Contamination of Milk. 



75 



88. Milkers. 

The milkers should have clean hands and suits, 
and just before milking, the flanks and udders should be 
wiped with a clean damp rag to lay the dust so that it 
will not fall into the milk pail. A pail with a top so 
constructed as to keep out the falling dirt, and at the 
same time can be easily cleaned, is desirable. Then 
the milk should be taken out of the stable as fast as 




Star Milk Cooler. 



milked, and strained and cooled. The most effective 
cooler is the Star, with corrugated surfaces over which 
the milk flows while cold water flows on the inside, and 
the milk can be cooled to within one degree of the water. 
The Champion cooler, which is a conical vessel over 
the surface of which the milk flows, is also effective. 

Several sanitary dairies, one in Illinois, and others 
near New York City, which produce milk under such 
conditions as described above, packed milk in ice, sent it 
to New York where it was transferred to the refrigerator 
of an ocean liner, and then after seven days on the ocean, 




Champion Milk Cooler as used by a patron of the National Milk 
Condensary, Kent, Ohio. 



--'/V_-v, 



e:e 






it?S^ ^-SVl^i-f;^- 



• .V -• — 



PROGENY or A 

SINGLE GERM ® 
ilM TWELVE HOURS 




Diagram showing the effect of temperature on bacterial 
growth— Russell. 



Contamination of Milk. 77 

at Havre, France, was put into a refrigerator car, and 
arrived at the Paris Exposition in excellent condition, 
and was kept several days there until used, in fact milk 
eighteen to twenty days old was as good as French milk 
twenty-four to forty-eight hours old. x-\ll tiits was 
done by keeping dirt and bacteria out of the milk as 
completely as possible. A few bacteria probably got into 
the milk, but keeping it cold, extended the length of the 
germicidal period, and afterv.ard kept the development 
of the few bacteria present in check. 

so. sterilization. 

But it IS mipossible to control a large milk supply 
as completely as just described, for farmers will be care- 
less, and will not go to the extent necessary to keep the 
germs out as completely as desirable. 

The only way to handle such milk is to 'cill the bac- 
teria. This can be done by heat. To sterilize milk, 
that is kill all of the bacteria in the milk, it will be neces- 
sary to heat the milk above the boiling point under 
pressure. Some bacteria go into the spore stage ; that is, 
go into a seed form, and these spores or seeds will stand 
high temperature, some k'nds even a boiling temperature. 
But it is not practical to. put milk under steam pressure, 
and if this were done the milk would have a disagreeable 
burnt taste, due to the changing of the albumen (which 
it will be remembered contains sulphur). It is evident 
that when people talk about sterilizing milk the}' do not 
understand wliat the sterilization of milk really involves. 
There is no sterilized milk on the market. They mean 
that milk is pasteurized. 

90. Pasteurization. 

By heating milk to lower temperatures than the 
boiling point for some time, all vegative or growing 





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Contamination of Milk. 79 

bacteria may be killed, which may be 99% of those 
present. 

91. T-wo Types of Pasteurizers. 

ihere are two types of pasteurizers used, the con- 
tinuous and the intermittent. The continuous pasteu- 
rizer heats a stream of milk which may be in a layer 
against a steam-heated surface in the machine, and after 
it passes out of the machine in a few seconds, may, or 
may not, be immediately cooled. 

The intermittent machine has a charge of milk or 
cream put into it which is heated to a desired tempera- 
ture, at which temperature it is held for a given length 
of time, and then quickly cooled. The intermittent 
machines will not handle as much milk per hour as the 
continuous kind. 

Milk heated to 176° F. for ten seconds will have 
99% of the bacterial content killed. The same milk 
heated to 160° F. will not be as effectively pasteurized. 
But five minutes at 160°, or ten minutes at 155°., fifteen 
minutes at 150° F., or thirty minutes at 140° F. will be 
as effective as five seconds at 176° F. 

But milk dealers do not wish to take the time to 
pasteurize with an intermittent machine. They want to 
put a large amount of milk through in a hurry and con- 
sequently use the continuous machines. But at tem- 
peratures above 160° F. a burnt taste begins to appear, 
which is disagreeable to customers, and they therefore 
cut the pasteurizing temperature down to 160° F., which 
may kill out a good many bacteria, but is not really 
effective. The lactic acid bacteria do not form spores 
and are killed out before some of the putrefactive kinds, 
and often such pasteurized milk will develop gaseous, ill- 
smellino^ fermentations, vrithout souring. The putrefac- 



80 Elemexts of Dairying. 

tive fermentations may cause bowel troubles, and by in- 
efficient pasteurization, milk may really become injurious 
to health. 

The lactic acid bacteria would sour the milk, so that 
it might be rejected, but it would not be harmful. 

Dr. Russ'^ll reports a comparison of continuous and 
intermittent pasteurizers at 150° F., as follows : 

Bacteria 
First Trial— Perec. 

Normal milk 34,603,000 

Continuous machine 2,732,000 

Intermittent machine 5.400 

Second Trial — 

Normal milk 9,781,000 

Continuous machine 661.000 

Intermittent machine 6,000 

H. A. Harding, at Geneva, New York, found with 
another style of continuous machine, that one day the 
bacteria were killed out down to 120 per cubic centimeter, 
and the next day 62,790 were left. 

At 176° F. a series of trials showed uniformally low 
results, ranging from 20 to 297, and higher temperatures 
were but little more effective. 



CHAPTER IX. 
Tjestiisg Cows. 

i*2. Tlie Co\^'s Milk;. 

A cow never made an ounce of butter. Men skim 
the milk, churn the cream, and get butter out of it, and 
butter has a commercial value. The conclusion is that 
a cow may be valued in terms of butter. How much but- 
ter can be made from the milk given by a cow, in a day, 
or a week, thirty days, or a year? The cows give the 
crude material, butter fat, and men make it into butter. 
The cow that has the capacity of turning food into a 
laree amount of crude material is valuable for breeding 
purposes. 

«3. Some Jersey Records. 

The Jersey cattle are noted for the rich milk that 
they give, and Jersey breeders have estabHshed a list of 
officially-tested cows, published in two volumes, entitled, 
''Butter Tests of Registered Jersey Cows." 

On page 1, volume I is the record of Princess 2d 
{8046), the cow^ that holds the world's record for one 
Aveek's test. The test was made February 22 to March 
1, 1885. at the age of eight years. She is reported to have 
given 299 pounds eight ounces of milk, from which was 
made 46 pounds 121/2 ounces of butter. 

If the butter made contained but 80% of butter fat. 
and if no butter fat was lost in the skim milk and butter- 
■milk, 3r.42 pounds of fat would be required to make the 
•amount of butter given, and that amount of fat in the 

81 



S2 Elements of Dairying. 

weight of milk given would require the milk to average 
for the week 12.5% fat. 

Toltec's Fancy (27172), recorded on page -1 of the 
same volume is reported to have given 130 pounds 4 
ounces of milk, from which 27 pounds 5% ounces of 
butter was made. On the same basis of figuring, her 
milk must have averaged 16.7% of fat. 

Harry's Pet (52838), recorded page 8, volume II,. 
is reported to have given 157 pounds 10 ounces of milk,, 
from which was made 22 pounds 11 ounces of butter. 
On the same basis her milk must have averaged 11.5% 
fat for one week. 

In July, 1900, the Babcock milk test w^as introduced 
to the world. Since then thousands of cows have been 
tested, and many cows of great value in the Jersey and 
other breeds have been revealed. In the thirteen years 
of the history of the Babcock test, no cow has been re- 
ported as giving milk averaging 9% fat for a week, and 
it is a question whether there are cows that will give 
more than twenty-five pounds of fat in a week. It is a 
rare thing to find one giving over twenty pounds. 

94. Columbian Exposition Test. 

At the Columbian Exposition a series of tests for 
cheese and butter were conducted for diiiferent lengths- 
of time. The Jersey, Guernsey and Shorthorn cattle 
were represented. Some excellent records were made 
in which the Jerseys took the lead, but it is a noticeable 
fact, that after scouring the country for the best cattle 
obtainable, there were none that averaged over six per 
cent. fat. Brown Bessy (74997), the champion cow, was 
calculated to have given fat equal to 3.48 pounds butter 
on her best day. This is calculated on a basis of 80% 
fat, which basis afterward led the Holstein-Friesian 



Testing Cows. S3 

Association astray. Her highest consecutive seven days 
work was calculated to be 20.163 pounds of butter. 

One year previous to the exposition, the author 
tested this cow for the American Jersey Cattle Club. 
She then was 188 days in lactation, and averaged 34.36 
pounds milk per day, testing 5.47% fat, equal to 1.88 
pounds fat. 

95. Holstein-Friesian Tests. 

The Holstein-Friesian Association has for some 
years conducted an advanced registry of tested cows. 
The tests have been conducted under the supervision of 
the various agricultural experiment stations, a repre- 
sentative weighing and testing the milk. 

96. Impossible Ovei*-riin. 

Along with the statement of the test a statement has 
been published by the association of how much butter of 
80% fat, the fat made would be equal to, and the next 
statement made has likely been that the cow made so 
much butter, without any reference to butter fat. This 
makes an overrun of 25%. The cow never made any 
butter, and no man can make as much marketable butter 
as stated, from that amount of fat, and the statement 
becomes a misrepresentation. At the 1903 annual meet- 
ing of the association, it was decided to allow an overrun 
of one-sixth. This is within the possibilities, but when 
they get down to a simple statement of milk and butter 
fat it represents just what the cow does. 

9T. Guernsey Tests. 

The American Guernsey Cattle Club reports tests 
of one year's work. In the past the owner reported the 
daily weights of milk, and samples of two consecutive 
day's' milk were sent each month to the experiment sta- 
tion to be tested. Different representatives of the club 



84 Elements of Dairying. 

appeared at different tinies during the year and weighed 
the milk and took samples of the milk to be tested, and 
comparisons were made with the weights recorded by the 
owner and with the samples of milk taken by him. A 
later plan requires an experiment station representative 
to personally supervise the milking once a month and do 
the testing. 

The two-year-old cow Dolly Bloom (12770), ad- 
vanced registry 40, — bred by Ezra Michener of Michener, 
Pennsylvania, now owed by F. Eathrop Ames, of "Eong- 
water," North Easton, Massachusetts, has completed 
a year's record, as follows : 

Milk, Per Gent. Pounds 

1902. . Pounds. Fat. Fat. 

March, 26-30 149.00 4.25 6.33 

April 795.50 4.25 33.81 

May 869.63 4.56 39.66 

June 909.81 4.40 40.03 

July 846.69 5.23 44.28 

August 795.2-5 5.17 41.11 

September 703.19 5.60 39. 8S 

October 688.50 5.30 36.49 

November 691.44 5.55 38.37 

December 694.50 5.60 38.89 

January 641.63 5.80 37.21 

February 543.69 5.73 30.61 

March, 1-25 512.75 5.40 27.69 

Totals 8841.58 . 5.13 453.86 

She was dropped April 14, 1900, making her 23 
months old when she dropped her calf. 

98. Value of Testing' Cotvs. 

The purpose of the author in this chapter is not to 
discredit the testing business. That the reader may be 
able to estimate the value of properly conducted tests 
and to know what a proper test is, attention has been 
called to some of the unfavorable things. Our atten- 



Testing Cows. 85 

tion will now be turned to the manner of testing and to 
the observance of peculiarities in results. 

99. Ho^v to Proceed. 

The cow's milk should be weighed at each milking. 
A large spring balance made for this purpose is the best 
scale obtainable. The dial should be graduated to tenths 
of a pound, as the decimal system is much easier to com- 
pute than pounds and ounces. A sample can be tested 
from each milking, or a composite sample of a week, or 
a few days can be taken. A pipette made by drawing in 
the ends of a glass tube/ ten or twelve inches long, in a 
gas flame can be easily made. A scale can be made by 
pasting a strip of paper on the side and dividing it into 
quarter inch spaces. Number the marks from the bot- 
tom to the top. With this pipette take a sample of milk 
of as many divisions as there are pounds of milk in the 
mess. In this way a proportionate sample can be ob- 
tained. The sample is delivered into a composite sam- 
ple jar, which has some preservative in it, to keep the 
milk for the period desired. 

A week will usually cover the usual fluctuations in 
daily fat yield, and so give a fair average. 

To establish a year's record for a cow, the milk 
should be weighed at each milking, which operation is a 
small amount of labor. Fat tests should be made for at 
least two days each month, or for a longer period at least 
four times in the year. It is not a rare thing for a cow to 
vary two or three per cent, of fat from one milking to the 
next. 

100. Tests of :*insle Milliiiifts Uiirelial>le. 

If the record of a cow is based on a single test, it will 
make considerable difference whether the high or low 



86 Elements of Dairying. 

testing sample happens to be taken as the basis of calcu- 
lation. 

lOl. Professor Farrington's E^xpei-iineiits on Averages. 

Professor Farrington has for several years con- 
ducted careful tests of cows in the herds of patrons of the 
University creamery. Composite samples of all of the 
milk given in a year by the cows were tested once a 
week. 

Samples for single days (two milkings) were taken 
at different lengths of time apart, to determine, as com- 
pared with the record of samples of all the milk given by 
the cows, the accuracy of computing averages when 
testing and weighiug the milk once in seven, ten, fifteen 
or thirty days. i\veraging the results from seven of the 
most variable cows, the results were as follows : 

Once in seven days, gave 98 per cent, of the total' 
milk and 98 per cent, of the total butter fat. 

Once in ten days, gave 98 per cent, of the total milk 
and 99.4 per cent, of the total butter fat. 

Once in fifteen days, gave 97.6 per cent, of the total 
milk and 98.5 per cent, of the total butter fat. 

Once in thirty days, gave 96.4 per cent, of the total 
milk and 97 per cent, of the total butter fat. 

Richness of milk, or a large fiow of milk for a short 
time, will not necessarily make a cow a large producer of 
butter fat. 

102. Milk Flow and Ricliness Combined. 

A combination of rich milk and a large persistent 
fiow are the factors making a large record, as is shown in 
the case of Dolly Bloom. 

The best cow is the one that makes the most butter 
fat in the year at the least cost. A cow must produce 
about 170 pounds of butter fat to pay the cost of keep- 



Testing Cows. 87 

ing. A cow should give at least 250 pounds of fat per 
year to be really valuable. 

Below are given the records of some creamery cows 
as reported by Professor Farrington in Bulletin 75 of the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station : 

Table showing milk and fat yields of Wisconsin 
cows : 

Factory Value 

Cow Days Pounds Per Cent. Pounds. Value of Fat 

No. Age. Milked. Milk. Fat. Fat. Milk. Per Pound 

25 6 365 7,887 3.95 312 $58.25 18.6 

1 7 303 6,182 4.8 296 53.25 18 

9 7 273 3,792 3.9 147 28.72 19.5 

10 9 209 4,061 3.9 160 32.13 20 

In the above table to make the facts still plainer the 
factory value of the butter fat is stated. Some of the 
cows came fresh in the fall, and winter butter fat brought 
higher prices, which explains the varying values of butter 
fat, which modify the results somewhat. 

Comparing cows Nos. 1 and 9 it is evident that the 
flow of milk should be large as well as persistent. 

103. Value of Pedigree. 

As an illustration of the value of registered full blood 
cows over comm.on stock, a record of official tests of 
Guernsey cows in Wisconsin, 1898-99, published in the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station, Report XVII, is given 
below : 

Registry Pounds Milk. Pounds. Per Cent. 

Name. No. Age. in'l Year. Fat. Fat. 

Lilly Ella 7240 5 12282.68 782.16 6.42 

Lilyita 7241 5 12812.73 710.58 5.69 

Countess Bishop.. 7869 4 7387.3 452.23 6.42 

Madam Trickesy.. 6519 6 7024.6 405.19 5.85 

Lady Bishop 6518 7 6608.9 381.1 5.40 

Pristoun 6570 7 6^^.^ 355.68 5.19 

Nounon 6569 9 6338.0 351.7 5.51 



yS Elements of Dairying. 

A 3-ear's record established in this way may have 
points for criticism, but is more valuable in estimating 
the value of an animal, than a test for a short period un- 
der pressure, as in the seven-day test. 

104. Unusnal Test of Dncliess of Oriusby. 

An unusual test of the Holstein-Friesian cow 
Duchess of Ormsby (16004) was made under the author's 
direction. She was tested in January, 1899, giving 356.9 
pounds of milk, averaging 5.41: per cent, fat, or 19.41 
pounds of fat. Her best milking showed 18 pounds of 
milk, testing 6.3%. fat, and her poorest milking 19.7 
pounds, testing 4.65% fat. This was phenomenal for a 
Holstein, and Professor Woll went to the farm the fol- 
lowing week, and secured samples which tested over 
5% fat. 

Her milk flow increased, and on February 24 an- 
other seven-day test was started, in which she gave 387.1 
pounds milk, but the average fat dropped to 4.29 per 
cent., a total of 16.61 pounds of fat. The milk flow con- 
tinued to kee]) up and on May 16 a third seven-day test 
was begvm, which resulted in 381.5 pounds of milk, aver- 
aging 3.67%o fat, or 14.02 pounds. 

We have no satisfactory explanation to offer for this 
peculiar and unusual variation in fat test. 

Attention has already been called (pp. 38-41) to some 
of the usual variations in fat test. 

105. DiflEerence BetTreen Mean and Average. 

Sometimes patrons at creameries take samples from 
the milk of each of their cows to have them tested. The 
percentages will be added and the sum divided by the 
number of cows. The result quite often shows a higher 
percentage than the average weekly test and there is 



Testing Cows. 89 

trouble ahead for the butter maker. The resuh so ob- 
tained is not an average, but an arithmetical mean. 

In securing an average, the weights of milk given 
by the cows must be taken into consideration^ as well as 
the fat tests. 

The following example will explain this. A man 
has two cows which give milk and test as follows : 

Pounds Per Cent. Pounds 
Milk. Fat. Fat. 

No. 1 50 3.0 1.50 

No. 2 20 5.0 1.00 

Total 70 2.50 

The arithmetical mean is obtained by adding the 
percentages and dividing by 2, which gives 4 as the mean. 

The average is obtained by dividing 2.5 by 70 and 
multiplying by 100, which gives 3.57% as the average. 



CHAPTER X. 
MlAJRKET Milk 

106. Value of 31111^ and Cream. 

"Milk and milk products have had a most important 
effect upon the dietary of civilized people. Among high 
class food products, few are more healthful than miilk 
when it is pure, and few food products contain greater 
possible dangers than when it is not pure. 

Many people restrict themselves in the use of milk 
under the impression that they are practicing economy. 
As a matter of fact one quart of milk containing five per 
cent, of butter fat has a food value equal to five-sixths of 
a pound of sirloin steak, to say nothing of the greater 
ease of serving or its greater healthfulness. A pint of 
cream, containing twenty per cent, of butter fat has a 
food value equal to five quarts of strawberries. This 
does not mean that one should be used to the exclusion 
of the other, but milk and cream are articles of diet that 
deserve a much greater use both from the standpoint 
of economy and healthfulness than are at present ac- 
corded them." — Dr. Thomas F. Hunt. 

107. Ancient Metliods of Milk Delivery. 

With the advance of modern civilization the milk 
supply for purposes of consumption of our country is 
keeping step. In unprogressive cities of the East the 
milkman proves the purity of his milk by driving the 
cow up to the door to be milked, but the unsuspecting 
public does not know that the first customer who gets 

90 



Market Milk. 91 

the fore milk gets skim milk, while the one who gets the 
stoppings gets cream. 

108. Cans vs. Bottles. 

The milkman in our cities who delivers his milk 
from cans and measures the milk for each customer 
drives over the dusty streets tilling his measures with 
dirt as he goes. The glass bottle securely capped pre- 
vents this. While more expensive, it is claimed that the 
extra milk that has to be given in the other method for 
good measure, together with the milk that is slopped, 
will pay the cost of the bottles. 

Glass bottles may, however, be more unsanitary 
than the other method if the bottles are not properly 
washed by the milk dealer. Bottles come from homes of 
questionable cleanliness or from homes harboring dis- 
ease, which may be carried to other customers through 
the milk bottles. It is therefore necessary to thoroughly 
wash and sterilize the bottles. The washing is usually 
done with a brush revolving on a shaft, and then sterilized 
by placing the bottles in a chamber which is then filled 
with live steam. All utensils which are used in contact 
with the milk should be likewise sterilized. 

A new bottle washer used in large establishments 
takes the bottles placed in two rows in racks, a dozen 
bottles in a rack. They are first subjected to jets of hot 
salsoda solution, next to jets of hot rinsing water, and 
third to jets of hot steam, coming out of the other end 
of the machine washed and sterilized. 

109. Millv Ticlcets. 

It is evident that milk tickets which are used many 
times may become dirty and so become conveyers of 
disease. Coupon tickets which are sold in strips, from 



92 Elements of Dairying. 

which pint or quart squares can be aetached and de- 
stroyed after once using, are coming into favor. 

110. Market Terms. 

Milk is sold under a number of different terms, such 
as pasteurized, aerated, certified, standardized, and modi- 
fied. Pasteurized milk has already been considered. 

111. Aerated Milk. 

Aerated milk is milk that has been subjected in fine 
streams to the air. Among cheese and butter makers 
aeration is considered very essential, but experiments at 
a number of experiment stations have led to the uniform 
conclusion that the only value of aeration is in cooling 
the milk, which cooling very naturally retards bacterial 
growth. 

112. Certified Milk. 

Certified milk is so called, because the producer has 
an arrangement with physicians to take samples for 
chemical and bacteriological analysis, and to inspect the 
cows, premises, etc., after which the physicians make a 
certified statement that all such provisions have been 
complied with, and that the milk is pure in every re- 
spect. 

113. Standarilized Milk. 

Standardized milk is milk standardized to a certain 
per cent, of fat. Often milk producers guarantee to sell 
milk or cream of a certain standard per cent, of fat for a 
certain price. 

It is necessary in such cases to take out some skim 
milk, making a higher percentage of fat". It is clearly 
illegal to abstract any fat from whole milk and then sell 
it for anything else but skim milk. 



Market Milk. 93 

114. Staiidardiziug' from Cream and Skim Milk. 

As an example of the method pursued, suppose we 
are standardizing milk to 5% butter fat. We have 332 
pounds of milk testing -iA'/c fat, or it contains 13.846 
pounds of fat, which divided by 5, the per cent, of fat re- 
quired, gives 2.TG9 and this multiplied by 100 gives 
276.9 pounds of milk that it will make. We run the milk 
through the separator and obtain perhaps 45 pounds of 
cream. The amount of cream we get and its richness 
each day will vary with the temperature of the milk, 
the rate at which the milk goes through, or the speed 
of the machine. It is impossible on account of these 
factors to take a cream of a certain per cent, of fat 
each day. It is therefore necessary to take a richer 
cream than is desired and thin down with skim milk. In 
such a case as the one under consideration, it will not be 
necessary to test the cream for fat. If the separator 
skims close, practically all of the fat of the milk will be 
in the cream. We now add enough skim milk, 231.9 
pounds, to the 45 pounds of cream to make the desired 
5% milk, and 45.1 pounds of skim milk is left over. 

115. Standardizing' from Ttvo Q,ualities of Milk. 

Another proposition in standardizing a certain 
amount of milk to a certain standard when milks of 
dififerent per cents, of fat are at hand is as follows : 

Example : Make 500 pounds of 4% milk from milks 
containing 5% and 3.2% fat. How much of each should 
be used to make the 500 pounds desired? 

500 pounds of 4% milk contains 20 pounds of fat. 

500 pounds of 5% milk contains 25 pounds of fat. 

500 pounds of 3.2% milk contains 16 pounds of fat. 

Every pound of 5% milk contains .05 pounds of fat. 

Every pound of 3.2% milk contains .032 pounds 
of fat. 



94 Elements of Dairying. 

Every pound of 5% milk replaced by 1 pound of 
3.2% milk reduces the fat by the difference .05 — .032 = 
.018 pounds. 

25 pounds — 20 pounds = 5 pounds of fat to be 
taken out by replacing 5% milk with 3.2% milk. 

.018 pounds is contained in 5 pounds 277 times. 

Therefore, 277 pounds of 3.2% milk is to be used in 

place of that much 5% milk, and 233 pounds of 5% milk 

will be required to make the amount up to 500 pounds. 

283 lbs. 5 % milk contains 11.15 lbs. fat 
277 lbs. 8.2 % milk contains 8.85 lbs. fat 



500 lbs. 4 % milk contains 20.00 lbs. fat 

Q. E. D. 

These methods are applicable to the standardization 
of cream as w^ell as of milk, excepting that it may pos- 
sibly be necessary to test the cream to be used. 

116. Value of Milk and Cream on Pat Ba.sis. 

A common problem that comes up in this connec- 
tion is that of the price of milk or cream by the gallon 
when the milk is bought on the fat test. For example : 

When milk of 4% butter fat costs $1.44 per 100 
pounds, what will be the cost per gallon of, first, 5% 
milk; second, 20% cream. 

At $1.44 per 100 pounds, each pound of fat will cost 
4 into $1.44. or 38 cents. A gallon of milk weighs 8.6 
pounds and contains 5% of that weight, or 4.3 pounds 
of fat. which at 38 cents per pound would be 16.34 cents. 
More butter fat in the cream lowers the specific gravity 
so that a gallon of 20.% cream will weigh about 8.3 
pounds and contain 1.66 pounds of fat, wdiich at 38 cents 
per pound would be w'orth 63.08 cents. 



Market Milk. 95 

117. Modifle<l 3Iilli. 

Cow's milk is used largely as the food for babies, the 
great majority of ihem being obliged to resort to it in 
whole or in part. So far in this book^ we have been con- 
sidering cow's milk, which varies from the milk of other 
species both in the amounts of the different constituents 
present, and also in the character of the constituents. 
The new-born calf has more hair, stronger bone frame- 
work and stronger muscles than a new-born baby. Its 
stomach and digestive tract is also very different, and it is 
no surprise to find that the food of each as prepared 
by nature is different. 

The following table shows the percentage composi- 
tion of the m.ilk* of different species of mammals. It 
should be remembered that cow's milk has been studied 
much more than the milk of other animals and more data 
are available for conclusions and also that the thorough- 
ness of emptying the milk glands may have affected the 
analyses here reported. 

Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. 
Animal. Water. Fat. Proteine. Sugar. Ash. 

Cow 87.17 3.69 3.55 4.88 .71 

Sheep .... 83.50 6:14 5.74 3.96 .66 

Goat 86.91 4.09 3.69 4.45 .86 

Mare 90.06 1.09 1.89 6.65 .31 

Ass 90.0(1 1..30 2.10 6.30 .30 

Human ... 88.2(1 ' 3.30 1.50 6.80 .20 

— According to Koenig. 

lis. Objectioiml Features of Co^v's Milk for Babies. 

It will be observed that mother's milk contains 
about the same fat, more sugar, half the proteine, and 
one-third the ash of cow's milk. But this difference is 
not all. The proteine is quite different. It will be remem- 
bered that the caseine of cow's milk has an acid reaction. 
Mother's milk is alkaline. Cow's milk curdles by the 
rennet in stomach in a hard clot, and the calf's stomach 



96 Elements of Dairying. 

is. constructed to handle such a lump. The baby's 
stomach is small, with a small opening into the intestine 
where the greater part of the digestion takes place. Such 
a hard clot cannot get out of the stomach and conse- 
quently causes distress for the baby. 

The proteine of mother's milk does not curdle in a 
large lump, but in fine flakes that readily pass through 
the small opening into the intestine where they can be 
digested. 

119. Methods of Modification. 

If cow's milk be mixed with an equal quantity of 
water, the solids will be reduced one-half. This leaves 
the amount of proteine right, but has reduced the fat 
which was just right before diluting, as well as the sugar 
which was insuiiticient. Either cane or milk sugar can 
be added to bring the percentage up to the desired 
standard, and fat can be added in the form of cream. If 
the milk be allowed to stand until the cream rises and 
the top half be taken for dilution with water, it serves the 
same purpose as adding cream, and all that is necessary 
after dilution will be the addition of sugar. 

120. Eifect of Water in Cow's Millc. 

But the addition of water to the cow s milk accom- 
plishes more than just the dilution of the proteine. It 
retards the formation of a clot, and when the clot does 
form, it is less firm and often flocculent like the flakes of 
mother's milk. Sometimes a little limewater is added 
to the milk. This being alkaline also retards the rennet 
action. Milk that is sour will curdle much quicker and 
form a firmer clot than sweet milk. Milk changed as 
just described is called modified milk. It is now carefully 
prepared on a commercial basis. 



Market Milk. 97 

121. Walker-Gordon Laboratories. 

It is said that A. V. Meigs, of Philadelphia, made 
the first attempt at such milk, and that later Rotch, of 
Boston, took it up. George E. Gordon, of Boston, be- 
gan the work on a commercial basis in 1893, and the 
Walker-Gordon laboratories of our large cities are the 
result. So important and well financed is this work that 
the Assistant Chief of the Dairy Division of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, was willing to leave 
his position with the government, to take charge of one 
division. 

They have laboratories at Boston, New York, Phila- 
delphia, Chicago, Baltimore, Providence, St. Louis, 
Buffalo, Cleveland, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Montreal, 
Ottawa, Toronto, and London, England. Babies mov- 
ing from place to place may have their prescriptions 
transferred from one laboratory to another. 

While they give suggestions as to the composition 
of milk and publish the following table of compositions 
for babies of different ages, they do not prescribe. The 
family physician writes out the prescription denoting 
composition, amount for the day, and the number of 
feeds, and the prescription is followed until a change is 
ordered. The milk is put up according to prescription 
and filled into six or ten-ounce nursing bottles, and a 
cotton plug inserted in the mouth. The bottles are then 
placed in a basket and the whole set into a steam chamber 
into which live steam is introduced, and the temperature 
raised to 150° F. for twenty minutes. The bottles are 
then taken out and set in ice water until ready for de- 
livery. The basket is delivered to the house and the bot- 
tles of the previous day returned to the laboratory. As 
wanted, a bottle is taken out of the basket, the cotton 



98 Elements of Dairying. 

plug is removed and a rubber nipple drawn over the end 
of the bottle. 

ABSTRACT FROM MEDICAL RECORDS OF THE WALKER-GORDON 

LABORATORY. 

Table Showing the Average Percentages Employed, and the Amount 
OF Modified Milk Fed to a Large Number of Infants. 

Amouut Fed Percentages. 

Weeks of Life- in Ounces. Fat. Sugar. Proteids. 

First 11/4 2.00 4.50 0.75 

Second 1% 2.50 5.50 1.00 

Third 2 3.00 6.00 1.00 

Fourth 21/4 3.00 6.00 1.00 

Fifth 2% 3.25 6.50 1.00 

Sixth 3 3.25 6.50 1.25 

Seventh 3 3.50 6.50 1.25 

Eighth 31/4 3.50 6.50 1.25 

Ninth 31/2 3.50 6.50 1.25 

Tenth 3Vo 3.50 6.50 1.25 

Eleventh 3Vo 3.50 6.50 1.25 

Twelfth 334 3.50 6.50 1.25 

Thirteenth 3% 3.50 6.50 1.25 

Fourteenth 4 3.50 6.50 1.25 

Fifteenth 4^/4 3.75 6.50 1.25- 

Sixteenth 41/4 3.75 6.50 1.25 

Seventeenth 41/2 3.75 6.50 1.50 

Eighteenth 41/2 3.75 6.50 1.50 

Nineteenth 4% 3.75 6.50 1.50 

Twentieth 4% 3.75 6.50 1.50 

Twenty-first 4% 3.75 6.50 1.50' 

Twenty-second 5 3.75 6.50 1.50 

Twenty-third 5 3.75 6.50 1.50 

Twenty-fourth 51/4 3.75 6.50 1.75 

Twentv-fifth 51/4 3.75 6.50 1.75 

Twentv-sixth 51/2 3.75 6.50 1.75 

Twenty-seventh 51/2 4.00 6.50 '1.75 

Twenty-eighth 51/2 4.00 7.00 1.75 

Twenty-ninth 5% 4.00 7.00 1.75 

Thirtieth 5% 4.00 7.00 1.75 

Thirty-first 6 4.00 7.00 1.75 

Thirty-second 6 4.00 7.00 1.75 

Thirty-third 61/4 4.00 6.50 1.75 

Thirty-fourth .... ... 6V4 4.00 6.50 2.00 

Thirtv-fifth 6y4 4.00 6.50 2.00' 

Thirtv-sixth 61/4 4.00 6.50 2.00 

Thirty-seventh 6V2 4.00 6.50 2.00 

Thirtv-eighth SVo 4.00 6.50 2.00- 



Market Milk. 



99 



Amount 
Fed 
Weeks of Life. in Ounces. 

Thirty-ninth OVs 

Fortieth 6% 

Forty-first 6% 

Forty-second 

Forty-third 

Forty-fourth 

Forty-fifth 

Forty-sixth 

Forty-seventh 

Forty-eighth 

Forty-ninth 

Fiftieth 

Fifty-first 

Fifty-second 



Fat. 

4 . 00 

4.00 

4.00 

4.00 

4.00 

4.00 

4.00 

4.00 

4.00 



00 
00 
00 
00 
00 



Percentages. 
Sugar. 
6.50 
6.50 
6.50 
6.50 



50 
00 



6.00 
6.00 
6.00 
6.00 
6.00 
6.00 
6.00 
5.50 



Proteids. 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.25 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.75 
2.75 
2.75 
3.00 



Amount Fed. 
2-6 Drachms . 



PREMATURE INFANTS. 

Fat. Sugar. Proteids. 

1.00 3.00 0.25 

1.00 4.00 0.50 

1.50 4.50 0.75 

The percentages are given in the round numbers next 
nearest the actual percentages employed, and are approxi- 
mate. 

122. Rubber Nipples. 

The rubber nipple must be carefully washed in warm 
water and kept in an antiseptic solution of boric acid, for 
rubber is porous and will soon absorb milk and get foul. 

123. Filling" Prescriptions. 

The inodified milk is prepared from the contents of 
four vessels. No. 1 contains cream of standard butter 
fat, sav 25%. No. 2 contains separator skim milk. No. 
3 contains a 20% sugar solution. No. 4 contains dis- 
tilled water. 

First, enough cream is taken to supply the fat, but 
with the cream goes some proteine and sugar. 



I r '^ 
L. Cf ^. 



100 Elements of Dx\irying. 

Next enough skim milk is added to furnish the 
difference in proteine between that added in the cream 
and the required amount. Sugar has been furnished 
with both cream and skim milk. Enough is now sup- 
plied to make up the deficiency, but the mixture is still 
short of the required volume. Water is added to com- 
plete the modification. 

Such a prescription would be wTitten as follows : 

h Fat 3% 

Sugar 6% 

Proteine 1% 8-4 oz. 

The composition of the milk is given, and it must be 
32 ounces in volume, divided into eight four-ounce feeds ; 
32 ounces of the above prescription calls for : Fat, .96 
ounces; proteine, .32 ounces; sugar, 1.82 ounces. To 
supply, .96 ounces of fat, 3.8 ounces of 25% cream will be 
necessary. 

BLANK FOR FILLING PRESCRIPTIONS OF MODIFIED MILK. 

Fat. Proteine. Sugar. 

Required oz 82 .96 .32 1.82 

Cream 8.8 .95 .141 .183 

Skim milk 5.1 .01 .171 .245 

Sugar solution 7.2 .00 .000 1.44 

Total 16.1 .96 .812 1.818 

Water to be added... 15.9 

On a blank for the purpose can be put down the fat 
thus added, together with proteine and sugar in the 
cream : .141 ounces proteine and .133 ounces sugar being 
thus added ; .18 ounces of proteine is still lacking which 
is supplied by adding 5.1 ounces of skim milk, at the 
sanie time adding .245 ounces of sugar, making .378 
ounces of sugar supplied in the cream and skim milk ; 
7.2 ounces of the sugar solution supplies the 1.14 ounces 



Market Milk. 101 

still lacking and the solids are all accounted for. But 
only 16.1 ounces of liquid is the result of the combina- 
tions^ but an addition of 15.9 ounces of the water expands 
the bulk to the required 32 ounces. 

124. E^ffect of Food on Baby's Healtli. 

A baby may grow and increase in weight, be plump 
and appear healthy on a diet of too much carbohydrate 
(sugar and fat). Proteine is necessary to supply muscle 
that will resist disease. It is therefore important that 
the proteine be not cut down too low in the modification. 

Premature,, undeveloped infants require weaker 
food, and whey which contains .75% of albumen, with a 
little cream added suits the purpose. Such a diet also^ 
works well with invalids with weak stomachs. 

125. Market Cream. ^ 

Variations in the quality of cream have already been 
explained. Gravity cream usually varies between 18% 
and 25%; fat. 

The usual standard for market cream is 20%. What 
is known as double cream is usually about 30% fat. The 
District of Columbia, Minnesota and Oregon have a 
legal standard of 20%, Washington 18%, and in Illinois 
15% for coffee and 22% for whipping cream. In Iowa, 
Nebraska and North Dakota the standard is 15%. The 
other states have legal standards for other dairy pro- 
ducts, but not for cream. In Ohio a woman arrested for 
selling adulterated milk, set up the plea that she was not 
selling milk but cream, and was acquitted. 

126. Condensed Milk. 

Condensed milk is made by evaporating milk by 
steam in a copper vacuum pan to one-third or less of its 
original volume. Two kinds are made — sweetened and 
unsweetened, to the former of which is added before 





J Jl 




■ "1^9 




P%H 




t"'" iB 


^* .^^^^NhBhII^bsBI 


1 


"' ^ 





Vacuum Pan in the National Condensed Milk Company's Fac- 
tory at Kent, Ohio. The bottom extends through the floor into the 
room below, where the condensed milk is drawn off. 



Market Milk. 103 

■evaporation cane sugar equal in quantity to the solids of 
the milk. 

A orood share of the condensed milk on the market 
has been skimmed before evaporation. This can be 
shown in the case of unsweetened milk where the fat is 
less than one-fourth of the total solids. In New York, 
Ohio, and Oregon this standard is established by law. 

Much of the evaporated or condensed milk on the 
market has a peculiar flavor due to heating to sterilize it. 

Some condensed milk is kept cold in bulk and sold 
in that condition as filler for ice cream. It is also sold to 
bakeries for use in the manufacture of confectionery. 

Evaporated cream is a fine quality of condensed 
milk. 

127. Condensed Milk for Babies. 

Condensed milk that has been skimmed, is often mis- 
represented as being a perfect food for babies, the mis- 
representation being evident after the discussion of modi- 
fied milk. 



CHAPTER XI* 
Dairy Refrigeratiojv. 

128. Field of Dairy Refrigeration. 

Under the head of dairy refrigeration will be given 
a brief discussion of the physics of refrigeration, and of 
frozen products. 

Refrigeration in the dairy is very important. 

129. British Tliermal Unit. 

When a pound of water is raised from 35° F. to 36° 
F. a certain amount of energy is exerted and this is 
termed a (B. T. U.) British Thermal Unit. 

130. Latent Heat. 

When a pound of ice at 32° F. is changed into water 
at 32° F. 142 B. T. U. disappear in the change. On the 
other hand when a pound of water at 32° F. changes into 
ice at 32° F.^ 142 B. T. U. are given ofif to surrounding 
objects. 

A pound of water rising from 50° F. to 60° F. will 
absorb in the operation but ten B. T. U. 

131. Ineffectiveness of Riinning; Water. 

For this reason a refrigerator cooled by running 
water is not nearly as efifective as melting ice. Water 
sprinkled, evaporates into vapor and takes up a great 
many B. T. U. in the operation and may thus lower the 
temperature of the air appreciably. The psychrometer is 
an illustration of this. Take two thermometers and place 
a wick on the bulb of one, wetting the wick. The evap- 
oration of the water from the wick will lower the mer- 

104 



Dairy Refkigeration. 105 

cury in that thermometer below that of the other in pro- 
portion to the dryness of the air. If it is desired to cool 
100 pounds of milk from GO' to 10", the work of 2000 B. 
T. U. will be required, equal to 11.1 pounds for just the 
cooling, but as there will likely be some radiation of heat 
from the milk vat, more ice than that must be added to 
accomplish the desired result. If it is desired to cool a 
quantity of milk with water the number of effective B. T. 
U. in each pound of w'ater must be calculated and then 
the water supply estimated. A creamery man can calcu- 
late the ice required for his season's w^ork by determining 
the refrigeration required in B. T. U. for a day, and then 
multiplying it by the number of days refrigeration re- 
quired. In cooling warm or hot milk it is not economical 
to cool from the first with ice, but the effectiveness of the 
water supply should first be exhausted. 

132. Artificial Refi-igeration. 

Artificial refrigeration is accomplished by the use 
in iron coils, of a medium that under high pressure is a 
liquid, but at ordinary temperatures and pressures is a 
gas. Carbon dioxide and anhydrous ammonia are com- 
monly used, the latter more than the former. Liquid 
ammonia at 150 pounds pressure per square inch, and 
at a temperature of perhaps 60°, is allowed to spray 
through a small opening into a coil under lower pressure, 
w^here it immediately changes into gas. The latent heat 
as in the case of ice changing into water disappears in the 
change, but takes this heat from surrounding objects, 
and the coil if in the air begins to frost Qver and cool the 
air, or if in a liquid as brine wall cool it. The gaseous 
ammonia is pumped by means of a gas pump, or com- 
pressor as it is called, into a coil where it is put under 
perhaps 180 pounds pressure, instead of 20 pounds, and 



106 Elements of Dairying. 

the temperature rises because of the compression in a 
gaseous state. Cold water flows over tlie coil, reducing 
the temperature, and when just the right temperature 
for that pressure is reached, the gas turns into a liquid 
again, and can be used once more in the same manner. 
To make an artificial refrigerating plant economical, 
plenty of cold water for the cooling of the gas is neces- 
sary, for the lower the temperature of the gas in the con- 
densing coil can be carried by the w^ater, the lower the 
pressure necessary for the condensation, and the lower 
the pumping pressure, the less power it will take, and 
less power means less fuel. Ammonia pressures are 
usually 130 to 200 pounds per square inch and carbonic 
anhydride 600 to 1000 pounds. 

133. Insulation Important. 

An important thing in a good refrigerator is good 
insulation. If the walls are such that the heat gets in, 
the effectiveness of the refrigeration is impaired. Plenty 
of dead air spaces, or granite rock wool, or granulated 
cork, are efTective. Floors should be of wood and well 
insulated. Cement floors are good conductors of heat. 

In case of artificial refrigeration, brine pipes should 
be thoroughly insulated. 

134. Freezing 3Iixtnres. 

It is sometimes desirable to get lower temperatures 
than can be secured from melting the ice above. Such 
can be obtained by the use of freezing mixtures. Common 
salt has a great affinity for water, and will tear ice to 
pieces to get it ; that is, will melt ice. Salt thrown into 
a frozen drain will melt it. When salt, with a little water 
to' start it into solution, is thrown onto ice it changes it 
into water, and the required 142 B. T. U. involved in the 
change must come from surrounding objects. 



Dairy Refrigeration. 107 

Where plenty of natural ice is to be had, a cold stor- 
age with very low temperatures can be obtained by 
means of mixing salt with the ice m cylinders suspended 

from the ceiling. 

Freezing mixtures can be used in the kitchen and in 
making ice cream. The brine from an ice cream freezer 
will sometimes stand at 0° F. 

Freezing mixtures can be used in the kitchen with a 
baking powder can in a small pail of the mixture. 

The more sah that is used the faster the mixture will 
act. An average freezing mixture is made by using one 
part of coarse salt to ten or twelve parts of ice by weight. 
In the kitchen, if ice is placed in a strong bag it can be 
easily, quickly, and thoroughly crushed with a mallet. 

135. Ice Cream. 

In making ice cream, the water in the serum freezes. 
Creams containing much fat freeze quickly and have 
more bodv, but do not chill the mouth as much as those 
of lower fat content. Cream of 25% fat gives a very 
good bodv, but more fat is undesirable as it soon satisfies 
the appetite. Creams of less fat content, 15%, are more 
apt to be granular on account of ice crystals, are 
colder because of more ice in the serum melting, and 
melt down into liquid quicker. One can eat more of 
such cream. 

136. Ice Cream Fillers. 

Fillers, that are cheaper than butter fat, are often 
used to give the cream body. Rice flour, or corn starch, 
are sometimes used, but can be detected by an alcoholic 
solution of iodine, which will turn the starch blue. 

Gelatin is also often used. Such can be detected by 
diluting with water and precipitating the caseine and fat 



108 Elements of Dairying. 

with acetic acid. The clear hUered solution will give a 
copious white precipitate with tannin. 

Condensed mfik is used by some manufacturers to 
give the cream body. As this contains nothing but milk 
constituents its use seems perfectly legitimate. Milk 
powders recently put upon the market may also be used. 

137. Frozen Juiilcet. 

Body can be obtained in milk or cream of low fat 
content, by curdling the same with rennet just before 
freezing. The cook can get liquid rennet from a drug 
store, the farmer can get rennet from the cheese factory, 
or regular junket tablets can be secured from Chr. 
Hansen's Laboratory, Little Falls, N. Y., with instruc- 
tion for use. 

138. Mixing Cream. 

Ice cream is sweetened with sugar. Use 2^ oz. of 
sugar per 1 lb. of cream for other than fruit flavors, or 
2 oz. w^here fruit flavors are used as fruit syrups contain 
sugar. 

Flavoring extracts contain alcohol and ethers, and 
care should be taken not to use too much, as they may 
impart a disagreeable taste. They vary in strength but 
are used to suit the taste. If kept long they disappear 
from the cream. 

Special flavoring extracts, sold only in wholesale 
quantities, to take the place of vanilla are on the market, 
as are also "German Fruit Oils" used to tone up natural 

fruit flavors. 

/ 

139. Expansion. 

In freezing cream the milk serum expands, the albu- 
men is whipped, and the air bubbles are incorporated 
with the cream, so that ()0% to 80% more ice cream can 
be taken out of the freezer than goes into it. 



Dairy Refrigeration. 109 

It is most light and feathery just before the cream 
sets, that is, when not quite frozen. If carried too far in 
the freezer, the expansion may largely disappear. If 
taken out of the freezer and frozen in a packing package, 
it will retain the expansion as long as solidly frozen, but 
if it partially melts, the air will go out and the expansion 
will disappear. 

In case layer cream is desired, the different flavors 
should be packed evenly and the moulds filled to prevent 
the entrance of brine. 

140. Freezing- in Open Kettles. 

In large plants where brine is available from artifi- 
cial refrigeration, brine is allowed to run through the 
freezing tub in which a copper kettle revolves on an axis. 
The operator w^ith a wooden paddle throws the cream 
up against the sides and in this way incorporates more 
air, makino- fine featherv cream. 



EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETINS 
AND REPORTS. 

The following references to experiment station lit- 
erature while not exhaustive will be found helpful to 
those wishing to refer to such original publications. In 
some cases the digest of the original publication is given 
in the Experiment Station Record, such references being 
indicated by the abbreviation E. S. R. 

BncteriJi in Milk:. 

Bacterial contamination of milk ; Wis. Bulletin 62 ; 
Conn's Bacillus, No. 41, Wis. Bulletin 48 ; The Wiscon- 
sin Curd Test, Wis. Report XV, p. 45 ; Dairy Bacteri- 
ology, Bulletin 25, Office of Experiment Stations, United 
States Department of Agriculture ; Invasion of the Ud- 
der by Bacteria," Cornell, Bulletin 1T8; The Different 
Species of Bacteria Producing Lactic Acid, Conn.^ 
Storr's School, Report III. Blue, Red, Reddish Brown, 
Bitter Milk, Minnesota Report, 1893. The Fermenta- 
tions of Milk, Farmers' Bulletin 9, Office of Experiment 
Stations. Souring of Milk, Farmers' Bulletin 29, Office 
of Experiment Stations. Sources of Bacterial Infection, 
Wis. Report XI, pp. 150-165. Cleanliness m Handling 
Milk, North Dakota Bulletin 21. Care of Milk on the 
Farm, Farmers' Bulletin 63, Office of "Experiment Sta- 
tions. Sources of Gas and Taint-Producing Bacteria, 
Cornell Bulletin 158. Colored Spots in Cheese, Geneva, 
Bulletin 225. 

110 



Experiment Station Bulletins and Reports. Ill 

Columbia Air Cliurn. 

Test of. Wisconsin Report XVII, p. 93. 

Composition of Milk. 

Milk Ash. ^ew Hampshire Report, 1888, p. 89; 
Maine Report, 1890, p. 52, (E. S. R., Vol. Ill, p. 23). 

Of 3Iilk: in General. 

Wisconsin Reports V, pp. 42-63; 161-168; VII, pp. 
111-119; XI, pp. 205-217; XII, pp. 120-126; XIII, pp. 
73-80 ; XVI, pp. 140-152 ; XIX, pp. 107, 128, 136. 

Bulletins 15, 16, 18, 61, 75, 96. 

New Jersey Bulletins 61, 65, 67, 68. 

Massachusetts Reports, 1888, 1889, 1890, 1891, 
1892. 

Minnesota Bulletin 19. 

From Different Breeds. 

New York State Report, 1891 ; Geneva Bulletins 18, 
21, 34, 68 and 77. 

Michigan Bulletin 68 ; Nevada Bulletin 16. 
Vermont Report, 1890, pp. 97-100, (E. S. R., Vol. 

III, p. 475). 

Illinois Bulletin 51, (May, 1898), (E. S. R., Vol. X., 
p. 781). 

Illinois Bulletin 24, (February, 1893), (E. S. R., Vol. 

IV, p. 940). 

Utah Report, 1897, (E. S. R., Vol. IX, p. 884). 

As Affected l>y Food. 

Storr's Report, 1897, pp. 93-112, (E. S. R., Vol. X, 
p. 683). 

Mass. Report. 1900, pp. 14-21, (E. S. R., Vol. XIII, 
p. 385). 

N. J. Bulletin 123, September. 1897, (E. S. R., Yol. 
IX, p. 985). 

Feeding Fat Into Milk. Report XIX, Bureau of 
Animal Industry. 1902. 



11;:^ Elements of Dairying. 

As Aft'ectetl by Exeiteiiieiit of Co^vs. 

By Dehorning, Wis. Report. 1889, p. 51, (E. S. R., 
Vol. II, p. 429). 

Composition of Milk for Cliee.se Making-. 

Wisconsin Bulletin (U, and Report XI, pp. 131-137. 
Geneva Bulletins, 37, 43, 45, 60, 61, 62, 65, 68 and 
110. 

Creaniinft- of Milk. 

By Gravity. Cornell Bulletin 29 ; Illinois Bulletin 
18; Indiana Bulletin 44; Minnesota Bulletin 19. 

Creaniins", «>< Affected by Feeding- Cotton Seed 3Ieal. 

Texas Bulletin 14. 

Wisconsin Bulletins 18 and 29. 

Creaming- by Dilution Creamers. 

Illinois, Bulletin 18; Cornell, Bulletins 29 and 151. 

Creaming- by Centrifugal Separators. 

Wisconsin Bulletins 29 and 56. 
Cornell Bulletin 66. 

Creaming- l>y Air Pre.ssure. 

Cornell Bulletin 39. 

Fat Globules. 

New York State Report, 1891, pp. 143-162 and 316- 
318, (E. S. R., Vol. IV. pp. 264-271). 

Vermont Report, 1890. pp. 65-69, (E. S. R., Vol. Ill, 
p. 472). 

New Hampshire Report, 1888, pp. 84-88, (E. S. R. 
No. 2, part II, p. 107). 

Maine Report, 1890, p. 58. (E. S. R., Vol. III. p. 23). 

Pennsylvania Report. 1895, pp. 75-85, (E. S. R., Vol. 
VIII, p. 826). 

Wisconsin Reports, 1889, pp. 99-102, and 119-122, 
(E. S. R., Vol. IL p. 430); 1890, pp. 238-247, (E. S. R., 



Experiment Station Bullptins and Reports. 113 

Yol. II, p. 454) ; 1893, p. 287, (E. S. R., Vol. VII, p. 559) ; 
1894, pp. 223-239, (E. S. R., Vol. VIII, f). 337). 

Indiana Bulletin 24, (1889), p. 12, (E. S. R., Vol. I, 
p. 40). 

Tlife Feeding Value of Wliey. 

Wisconsin Bulletin 27. 

Flavor of Milk. 

Silage Flavor. Wisconsin Bulletin 59, May, 1897, 
pp. 25-28, (E. S. R., Vol. IX, p. 378). 

Fishy Flavor. New York Bulletin 183, (December, 
1900), (E. S. R., Vol. XIII, p. 85). 

Absorption of Flavors. 

Wisconsin Report XV, p. 104. 

-Aeration. 

Wisconsin Report XII, p. 127. 

Galactase. 

A ferment (enzyme) natural to milk. Wisconsin 
Reports XIV, p. 161; XV, pp. 77-93; XVI, pp. 151-175. 

Historical. 

Wisconsin Bulletin 88 ; Report XIV, 1897, pp. 113 
and 149. 

Ohio Dairymen's Reports, 1902 and 1903. 

Milk Production. 

Effect of Drouth Upon Milk Production; Geneva 
Bulletin 105 ; The Immediate Effect of Changes of Ra- 
tion, Geneva Bulletin 210; The Source of Milk Fat, 
Geneva Bulletins 132 and 139. 

Cost of Milk Production. Cornell Bulletin 52. 

Feeding Fat to Cows. Cornell Bulletin 92. 

Studies in Milk Secretion, Cornell Bulletin 152. 

The Milk Supply of Two Hundred Cities and 
Towns. Bulletin 4G. Bureau of Animal Industry, 1903. 



114 Elements of Dairying. 

Pasteurization. 

Wisconsin Bulletin 44; The Efficiency of a Con- 
tinuous Pasteurizer,, Geneva Bulletin 172 ; Wisconsin 
Reports XII, p. 158, XVI, p. 121 and 129, XVIII, p. 177. 

Seci'etion of Milk. 

Dr. A. W. Bitting on Physiology of Milk Secretion,. 
Indiana Report XII ; The Udder of the Cow, Indiana 
Bulletin 62. 

Short's Saponification. Milk: Test. 

Saponifying and Setting Fatty Acids Free, Wis- 
consin Bulletin 16. 

Testing Cotvs. 

Wisconsin Bulletin 75; Reports XI, p. 205; XIII,. 
p. 164; XIV, p. 153; XV, p. 30; XVI, p. 140; XVIII, 
pp. 73 and 85, and 91. 

Viscosity. 

Wisconsin Report, 1895, (XII), p. 164 ; Report, 1896, 
pp. 73-80, Bulletin 54, (E. S. R., Vol. IX, p. 582). 



DAIRY LITERATURE. 

Dairy Books. 

The' followini? twelve books should be in every 
dairyman's library : 

Testing Milk and Its Products— Farrington and 
Woll. 

Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology— Dr. H. L. Russell. 

The Principles of Modern Dairy Practice— Groten- 
felt. Translated by F. W. Woll. 

Bacteria in Milk and Its Products— H. W. Conn. 

Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen— F. W. Woll. 

The Theory and Practice of Infant Feeding — 

Chapin. 

Cheese Making — Decker. 

Milk and Its Products— H. H. Win^. 

Three Pamphlets on Cheese Making, Butter Making 
and Pasteurization— By J. H. Mourad. 

The Creamery Patron's Handbook— Published by 
the National Dairy Union. Charles Y. Knight, Secretary, 
154 Lake St., Chicago. 



115 



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